17th Century Europe: Society, Philosophy, and Art

The 17th Century: A Transformative Era

Historical Context of the 17th Century

The 17th century was a period of profound change across Europe, marked by significant conflicts and shifts in power dynamics. This era, often associated with the life and thought of prominent figures like Descartes, witnessed the devastating impact of widespread warfare and the emergence of new political structures.

The Thirty Years' War and its Aftermath

The continent was embroiled in the Thirty Years' War, primarily a conflict between Catholics and Protestants in Germany, which extended across all of Europe. France, under the strong influence of the Jesuits (during the reigns of Louis XIII and XIV), stood in contrast to Holland, a more tolerant haven for philosophers and free thinkers. The war concluded with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which established French hegemony in Europe and signaled the beginning of Spain's decline.

Socio-Economic Devastation

From a socio-economic perspective, the consequences of the Thirty Years' War were devastating. Europe experienced a drastic population reduction and a deep, widespread crisis.

Rise of Absolutism and its Ideology

Politically, the absolutist state emerged, concentrating all power in the king, who was considered divinely appointed. The absolutist mentality embodied despotism and servility as fundamental behaviors. Absolutism triumphed due to several factors:

• The strong personalities of kings and their ministers.
• Widespread weariness from prolonged political and religious wars.
• The bourgeoisie's support for the king against the nobility, seeking greater security and stability.

Stratified Social Order

The social organization of the time was rigidly stratified. At the apex was the King, followed by the nobility and high clergy. At the grassroots level was the Third Estate, comprising the vast majority of the population.

Sociocultural Landscape

Religious Conflicts and Movements

Religiously, the period saw an intense clash between Luther's Reformation (with his Wittenberg theses) and the Catholic Counter-Reformation. The Jesuits were particularly prominent in strengthening the Catholic faith against Protestantism. Another significant movement was Jansenism, a French theological movement diffused through the writings of figures like Antoine Arnauld and Blaise Pascal. The Council of Trent solidified the Counter-Reformation and strengthened the Inquisition.

Baroque Art and its Purpose

Baroque art flourished, accentuating scenic effects to promote faith and exalt both the faithful and the power of monarchs. Great artists of this era included Diego Velázquez and Gian Lorenzo Bernini.

Pessimistic Literary Themes

Literature of the period often manifested a pessimistic conception of humanity, highlighting the transience and vanity of life, and a profound concern for death. Key literary figures included:

• William Shakespeare
• Miguel de Cervantes
• Francisco de Quevedo
• Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin)
• Lope de Vega

Philosophical and Scientific Developments

Influence of Scholasticism and Skepticism

The philosophical framework of the era was significantly influenced by scholastic philosophy (often studied in youth, particularly with Jesuits) and by the skepticism of Montaigne. Montaigne's skepticism posited that no belief system is definitively true, as all our opinions are based on the power of habit.

Quest for Indubitable Certainty

Philosophers of this time, notably René Descartes (implied by the original text's context), often rejected arguments based on scholastic authority. However, they also did not accept skeptical arguments, instead striving to find indubitable certainty as the foundational basis for knowledge. This quest led to intense discussions with contemporaries such as Pierre Gassendi and Thomas Hobbes.

The Scientific Revolution

This period coincided with the burgeoning Scientific Revolution, initiated by Galileo Galilei. Galileo developed a model of scientific knowledge based on the combination of reason and empirical experience. Other pivotal figures included Johannes Kepler and Nicolaus Copernicus, whose work laid the groundwork for modern astronomy.

Emergence of Academies

Universities of the time were often in crisis due to control by either Protestantism or Catholicism, which led to the emergence of academies as new centers for intellectual and scientific discourse.