17th Century Europe: Absolutism, Crisis, and Modern Philosophy

The Rise of Absolute Monarchy in 17th Century France

The historical framework of the 17th century, influenced by thinkers like René Descartes, saw a significant shift in France. Following the death of Henry IV, the monarchy transitioned from an authoritarian system to an absolute monarchy, a process initiated by Louis XIII and culminating under Louis XIV.

This authoritarian monarchy served as an intermediate stage between a king with limited power and the absolute authority later enjoyed by the monarch. Interestingly, the absolute monarchy found support among the bourgeoisie, who, in turn, were instrumental in its establishment.

The reign of Louis XIII was marked by the Thirty Years' War, a religious conflict that evolved into a struggle for continental hegemony, ultimately concluding with the Peace of Westphalia.

Upon Louis XIII's death, his son Louis XIV inherited the throne. His mother, Anne of Austria, initially held power, appointing Cardinal Mazarin as prime minister. However, Louis XIV eventually dismissed the prime minister, choosing to rule directly through secretaries of state, intendants (mayors), and lettres de cachet (sealed letters).

Religion played a crucial role in national unification, with the Church largely subjected to the monarch's authority. This era of absolute rule eventually concluded with the War of the Spanish Succession.

17th Century Sociocultural Landscape: A Century of Crisis

The 17th century, often referred to as a century of crisis, was profoundly shaped by events like the Thirty Years' War. Europe experienced a severe economic crisis, triggered by various catastrophes, which in turn led to widespread social unrest, riots, and subsequent repression.

Peasants, lacking land and work, migrated to towns. The monarchy gained support from the rising bourgeoisie, who were essential to the development of capitalism and sought greater influence. Meanwhile, the nobility largely maintained their wealth and status.

Culturally, the Baroque style emerged as the dominant artistic expression par excellence. Major religious denominations of the time included Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, and Catholicism.

Literary and Artistic Flourishing

The 17th century marked the passing of literary giants like William Shakespeare and Miguel de Cervantes. In Spain, the Golden Age of literature continued with prominent authors such as:

• Lope de Vega
• Tirso de Molina
• Calderón de la Barca
• Mateo Alemán
• Francisco de Quevedo
• Luis de Góngora

French theater also experienced its Golden Age with playwrights like Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine, and Molière.

Architecturally, the Baroque style adorned cathedral facades in Spain, notably in Granada, Murcia, and Madrid's Plaza Mayor. In sculpture, Gian Lorenzo Bernini stood out, while painting saw the brilliance of Caravaggio and Peter Paul Rubens.

The Philosophical and Scientific Revolution

The philosophical thought of the era, particularly linked to René Descartes, was deeply intertwined with the Scientific Revolution. This revolution began with Nicolaus Copernicus's groundbreaking work on planetary motion, proposing the heliocentric theory that challenged Ptolemy's geocentric model.

The problems inherent in Copernicus's initial model were subsequently refined and solved by brilliant minds such as Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton. Descartes himself significantly influenced the philosophy of science, advocating for the integration of established religion with scientific inquiry.

Galileo developed a new empirical approach to science, while Francis Bacon championed the systematic study of natural science. This pursuit of knowledge empowered humanity to progress and build a true, verifiable science. Bacon's thinking clearly articulated the separation between faith and reason.

Across Europe, a skeptical approach gained traction, with philosophy grappling with the idea that no certain knowledge could be obtained on any subject. This justified a cautious stance. The resurgence of skepticism, notably from Michel de Montaigne, became a major intellectual current, reactivating ancient ethical approaches and a commitment to fideism (reliance on faith).

Descartes' influence on the libertines (free-thinkers) was evident. His emphasis on prudence and methodical doubt allowed for a measured engagement with the perceived threat posed by their radical ideas.