Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for University

Homeostasis and Examples

Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment. Examples include: 1) body temperature regulation, 2) blood glucose regulation, 3) water balance, 4) blood pressure regulation, and 5) pH balance.

Branches: Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy is the branch of science that deals with the study of the structure of different organisms and the human body.

Physiology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the functions of different organisms and the human body.

Cell and Tissue Structure and Function

Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of the living body that carries out all vital physiological activities.

Tissue is a group of similar... Continue reading "Human Anatomy and Physiology Essentials: Homeostasis, Blood, Joints, Skin" »

Q1. Political inquiry and interpretation

Political inquiry occupies a central position within social science research as it seeks to systematically study power, authority, institutions, political behaviour, and decision-making processes that shape social life. Unlike common-sense explanations or ideological assertions, political inquiry relies on methodical investigation, theoretical frameworks, and empirical or interpretive analysis to generate reliable knowledge about political phenomena. Its importance lies in transforming politics from mere opinion into a subject of disciplined academic study. — The primary significance of political inquiry is that it enables a scientific and systematic understanding of political processes such as state... Continue reading "Political Inquiry & Interpretation: Methods, Ethics, and Design" »

Key Physics Concepts

KEY CONCEPTS

• 1. Law: An object stays in uniform motion unless a net force acts.
• 2. Law: Acceleration is proportional to net force and inversely proportional to mass.
• 3. Law: Forces come in equal and opposite pairs.
• Conservation of Energy: Total mechanical energy remains constant if no non-conservative forces act.
• Conservation of Momentum: Total momentum stays constant in isolated systems.
• Archimedes: Buoyant force equals the weight of displaced fluid.
• Bernoulli: Faster fluid → lower pressure; slower fluid → higher pressure.
• Pascal: Pressure applied to a fluid transmits equally everywhere.
• Electric Field: Region where a charge experiences force.
• Potential Difference (Voltage): Energy per charge.
• Current: Rate of charge flow.
• Resistance:

The Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm is an iterative method used to estimate the parameters of statistical models that involve latent (unobserved) variables, such as missing data or hidden cluster assignments. It is especially useful for fitting Gaussian Mixture Models (GMMs), where the goal is to model data as a mixture of several Gaussian distributions.

How the EM Algorithm Works

The EM algorithm alternates between two steps:

• Expectation Step (E-step): Given the current parameter estimates (means, covariances, and mixing coefficients for GMMs), the algorithm computes the probability (or "responsibility") that each data point belongs to each Gaussian component. This step essentially fills in the missing information about which cluster

Listening Comprehension Test Results (55 Minutes)

Part A: General Listening Questions and Answers

This section covers various topics, including scheduling, travel, and personal preferences.

2. Which days does the bank close? Answer: C. Sunday and Monday
3. Andrew calls Sue from his holiday. What present has he got her? Answer: C. A cake
4. There is a meeting with some new clients. What time do they want the meeting? Answer: A. 2:00 p.m.
5. Sumatah tells her friend about an art club. When does the club meet? Answer: B. Thursday
6. Two friends are discussing the man’s holiday. What did the man think of the hotel owner? Answer: B. He was not funny
7. A lecturer is describing changes to a university. What makes the university special? Answer: A. The garden
8. Listen to a

Unit 1. Q 1: Difference between speculation, investment, and gambling. Describe the process of investment management. Also tell about difference between financial investments versus real investments. Also, first of all meanings of investments.

Introduction

Investment plays a crucial role in the economic development of a country as well as in the personal financial growth of individuals. Every person or business aims to utilize their funds efficiently to earn future returns. In simple terms, investment refers to the allocation of funds in assets or instruments that are expected to generate income or appreciate in value over time. It is a planned activity, done after analyzing risk, return, time period, and market conditions. Investment differs... Continue reading "Investment Fundamentals: Risk, Return, and Market Analysis" »

Strategic Thinking Tools

A framework is a structured thinking tool that helps interpret information, make decisions, and support predictions or claims.

Business Model Canvas: Nine Basic Components

The Business Model Canvas includes these nine essential components:

• Key Partners
• Key Activities
• Key Resources
• Value Propositions
• Customer Relationships
• Channels
• Customer Segments
• Cost Structure
• Revenue Streams

PESTEL Analysis

PESTEL analyzes macro-environment forces impacting an organization's strategies. These forces can be positive, negative, or neutral. It is typically used at the industry level, leading to customized responses at the organizational level. The components are:

• Political
• Economic
• Social
• Technological
• Environmental
• Legal

Be able to make a PESTEL for the

Understanding Operations Management (OM)

Definition: The design, direction, and control of processes that transform inputs into goods and services.

Why it matters: Approximately 60–80% of people and investment in many firms are concentrated in operations.

Example: In a hospital, inputs (doctors, equipment) go through a process (diagnosis/treatment) to create an output (a healed patient).

Porter’s Value Chain Model

The Concept: Breaking a firm into primary and support activities to identify where value is created and costs are managed.

• Primary Activities: Inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and service.
• Support Activities: Procurement, technology, human resources (HR), and firm infrastructure.

Example: Apple utilizes... Continue reading "Mastering Operations Management Fundamentals" »

Consumer Behavior: Scope, Importance, and Research

Consumer behavior refers to the study of how individuals, groups, and organizations select, purchase, use, and dispose of goods, services, ideas, or experiences to satisfy their needs and wants. It encompasses psychological, social, and cultural processes influencing consumer decision-making. It helps marketers understand what, why, how, and when consumers buy, allowing them to design effective marketing strategies.

Scope of Consumer Behavior

The scope of consumer behavior is vast and multidisciplinary. It covers:

• Consumer Needs and Wants: Understanding evolving consumer expectations, preferences, and priorities helps marketers develop relevant products.
• Buying Decision Process: Examines stages

1. Predicate Logic in Knowledge Representation

Predicate logic, also known as first-order logic (FOL), extends propositional logic by allowing representation of objects, their properties, and the relationships between them. It is widely used in knowledge representation and reasoning (KRR) in AI because it can express complex facts, rules, and structures beyond simple true/false propositions.

Key Components

• Predicates: Functions that express properties or relationships. Example: Father(John, Mary) means John is the father of Mary.
• Variables: Symbols that stand for arbitrary objects. Example: x in IsHuman(x).
• Constants: Specific objects or entities like John and Mary.
• Quantifiers:
  • Universal quantifier: "For all", written ∀x.
  • Existential quantifier: