Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for University

Understanding Wealth Taxation

A wealth tax is a tax periodically levied on an individuals' net value of assets.

Definition and Scope

These assets, for example, include:

• Bank deposits
• Savings
• Real estate
• Luxury items (art, jewelry, airplanes, etc.)
• Personal trusts

Liabilities like mortgages, loans, or other debt are deducted from a person's wealth.

Global Implementation

Current Adopters

Currently, three countries have a wealth tax implemented in their tax systems:

• Norway
• Spain
• Switzerland

Tax characteristics vary from country to country and sometimes even within a country.

Specific Cases

Belgium recently implemented a form of wealth tax that, unlike in other countries, only includes financial instruments held in an individual's securities accounts.

France abolished... Continue reading "Wealth Taxation Explained" »

1. Introduction: The European Union

Important dates: 7 enlargements:
- UK, Ireland, Denmark (1973)
- Greece (1981)
- Portugal and Spain (1986)
- Finland, Sweden, Austria (1995)
- 10 countries (2004)
- Bulgaria and Romania (2007)
- Croatia (2013)

7 treaties:
1. Treaty of Paris (1950): European Coal and Steel Community
2. Treaty of Rome (1957): EURATOM, EEC, ECSC.
3. Treaty of the European Single Act (1986): the Single Market.
4. Treaty of Maastricht (1991): the Treaty of the EU.
5. Treaty of Amsterdam (1996)
6. Treaty of Nice (2001)
7. Treaty of Lisbon (2009)

1 downsizing: Brexit (2019-?)

Aspects of the European Integration Model - Mechanisms:
- Single market.
- Customs Union.
- Single currency.
- European institutions.
- Interterritorial cohesion policies.
- Common... Continue reading "Understanding the European Union and Its Monetary Union" »

Categories of Countries Receiving Special Attention

• Least Developed Countries (47 countries)
• Landlocked Developing Countries (32 countries)
• Small Island Developing States

Commissions

• Trade and Development Commission
• Investment, Enterprise and Development Commission
• Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD)

The International Labor Organization (ILO)

The ILO is devoted to promoting social justice and internationally recognized human and labor rights. It was established in 1919 and became the first specialized agency of the United Nations in 1946. It has 187 members.

Key Issues

• Youth employment
• Social protection
• Decent work and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

Strategic Objectives

• Promote and realize standards and rights at work.

1.5 Protection vs. Integration

Protectionism: The protection objective is to keep alive domestic production and to increase import prices. For this purpose, it uses different instruments:

• Tariffs: taxes on imported goods to protect the domestic industry. An external tariff is a 'tax' on foreign products introduced in the domestic market. The effect is that its price is higher and it is more difficult to compete with domestic products.
• Quotas on imports: is a limitation of the quantity of foreign products to be imported, regardless of the price. Quotas limit imports and increase domestic prices. The limited quantity is an obstacle for foreign products when international prices have decreased.
• Non-tariff barriers: are administrative regulations for

1. Breathing

The first basic principle of Pilates is breathing. Proper breathing:

• Encourages effective oxygenation of the blood.
• Helps relax the muscles and avoid unnecessary tension.
• Focuses the mind and allows for concentration.

Here's how to breathe correctly during Pilates:

• Exhale deeply to activate the deep abdominal muscles.
• Focus on breath and stabilization before initiating any movement.
• Breathe into the lower rib cage three-dimensionally.
• Expand laterally to open the back of the rib cage.
• Breathe into the lower lobes of the lungs for more effective gas exchange.
• Engage the deep stabilizers of the torso, particularly the transversus abdominis first and the oblique abdominals later.
• Simultaneously engage the pelvic floor and the multifidus with

Microbial Secretion Systems

Matching

Which secretion system:

• Moves protein from the periplasmic space to the exterior? 2, 4, 5
• Moves DNA from one cell to another through conjugation? 4
• Moves protein from cytoplasm to exterior (not into another cell)? 1, 3
• Relies on Sec to do the first step of transportation? 2, 4, 5
• Requires ATP? All
• A domain of the protein itself forms a beta-barrel that inserts into the outer membrane (i.e., forming a pore), allowing the rest of the protein to pass through? 5
• The protein being transported carries a C-terminal signal peptide? 1
• The preprotein (before final folding) being transported carries an N-terminal signal peptide? Sec

Viral Multiplication

Six Steps to Viral Multiplication:

1. Attachment to host cell
2. Entry
3. Uncoating of

Chapters 1-3

1. Basic Components of Linguistic Knowledge

Syntax: Rules for combining words

Pragmatics: How language is used

Semantics: Meaning of words and sentences

Phonology: Sound system of a language

Morphology: Smallest unit of meaning in language

2. Properties of Human Language

a. Vocal-Auditory Channel: Speech is based on sounds.

b. Interchangeability: The same person can both transmit and receive messages.

c. Complete Feedback: While speaking, we can monitor what we are saying.

d. Arbitrariness: No direct connection between a word and its referent.

e. Discreteness: Language is based upon a vocabulary of independent, movable units.

f. Displacement: We use speech to refer to things in other times or places.

g. Cultural Transmission: One generation... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Linguistics: Properties and Systems" »

Three Roads to Modernity

1. Capitalist Democratic Road

• Identified in the UK, France, and the USA.
• The peasant question is solved as the peasantry is quickly and efficiently absorbed by the new economic system.
• Steps: enclosure, new technology, industry (normally starting with mining and textiles).
• In these three countries, there is a bourgeoisie that controls the industrialization process.
• This way, they become firstly economically wealthy and then politically powerful (need of political power to consolidate economic power).
• Finally, the landed aristocracy branched out to the bourgeoisie.

This is clearly reflected in the voting power. Initially, only the aristocracy could vote, but gradually the right to vote began involving those who were gaining... Continue reading "Three Paths to Modernity: A Comparative Study" »

Defining Globalization

Globalization is widely considered the dominant paradigm today. However, the term holds different meanings for different people. Some view it as another word for 'Westernization,' referring to the spread of Western culture worldwide. Others interpret it as internationalization, leading to a homogenization of global culture.

Scholarly Definitions of Globalization

• The spread of transplanetary connections between people.
• A fundamental shift in the nature of social space, encompassing markets, emotions, ideals, music, and more.

Historical Development of Globalization

• The European discovery of America.
• Magellan and Elcano's circumnavigation of the globe.
• The era of European imperialism.

Key Period: 1870-WWI

• Rapid industrialization,

Consolidated Financial Statements

When Consolidated Financial Statements Cannot Be Compiled

Determine when a parent entity, which is itself a subsidiary, is *not* required to prepare consolidated financial statements:

• When the ultimate parent entity produces consolidated general-purpose financial statements that comply with full IFRSs or with IFRS for SMEs.
• When an entity has no subsidiaries other than one that was acquired with the intention of selling or disposing of it within one year.

Presumption of Control

Identify the circumstances under which control is presumed to exist:

• When the parent owns, directly or indirectly through subsidiaries, more than half of the voting power of an entity.
• When the parent owns half or less of the voting power of