Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Evolution of Moderate and Progressive Approaches in Spain (1808-1855)

Fernando VII's reign began in 1808. The start of the decade saw an absolutist Spanish formal university curriculum by 1824, known as the Calomarde Plan.

This plan was a major achievement in college, boosting its government. It transformed the figure of the rector while limiting it to the cloister (the process of centralization). Teachers ought to have sound doctrine and be examples of good conduct, and be responsible for the *aprovechamiento* (academic progress) of their students. Access to the chair was in opposition, in which human, moral, and political qualities were valued, as well as academic ones. There were three types of teachers: owners, substitutes, and *sustitutos*... Continue reading "Moderate and Progressive Education Reforms in Spain (1808-1855)" »

Techniques and Technologies

Techniques are the knowledge, skills, and tools used internationally to achieve a goal, such as creating management systems or knowledge that can generate inventions to facilitate a particular job.

Technologies are applications of scientific knowledge to the production of useful objects.

Brief History of Techniques

It was only in the late eighteenth century, with the Industrial Revolution, that human productive capacity became sufficient to make extensive and deep changes. The industrial age is responsible for the emergence of technical means, made up of industrial concentration, farmland, cities, and infrastructure established over the last two centuries.

World-Economy

The initial cycles of the industrial era opened the... Continue reading "Techniques and Technologies: A World-Economy Perspective" »

The Power of Mathematics in Science

Mathematics is a natural language that describes natural laws. This shared language enables scientists from all disciplines to understand the world, transcending the limitations of their native tongues and fostering global scientific collaboration.

Precision and Conceptual Clarity

Mathematics offers a level of precision that surpasses natural language, allowing for more accurate and unambiguous communication of scientific concepts.

Prediction and Insight

As a predictive tool, mathematics can forecast the values of variables and reveal previously unknown relationships, providing deeper insights into phenomena.

Rigor and Argumentation

Mathematics employs rigorous logical deductions to develop and express knowledge.... Continue reading "Unveiling the Power of Mathematics in Scientific Discovery" »

Political Representation

The Concept of Political Representation

1. The Taxonomy of Political Representation

Elections are not an end in themselves, but a means of staffing political bodies. Political representation, as a key organizational problem, addresses this staffing process. Birch has outlined three disputes concerning parliamentary representation:

1. Who and what should be represented?
2. How are representatives selected?
3. How should representatives behave?

The first dispute concerns who should be included in the vote. The answer is all adults, excluding those incapacitated or mentally handicapped. However, societies are permeated by various social divisions. The answers to the second and third questions are more complex. The dispute over electoral... Continue reading "Political Representation: Taxonomy, Ambiguities, and Functions in Liberal Democracy" »

Impersonal Prayer:

• Natural: Natural phenomena
• Grammar: be, have, and do (used in the singular), e.g., "There is a hall in San Rafael."
• Impersonal with 'it': The subject, if it occurs, e.g., "Bread for sale..."
• Potential: The action concerned is performed, e.g., "Daisy made the phone call."

Analysis of the Word and its Objects

Written in 1990, it reflects on Costa Rican patriarchal society, though with the character as a Latin American country in the second half of the twentieth century. Relationships are obviously critical. The essay contains a criticism of patriarchy and a defense of women, within a sociocultural environment. It addresses the woman's troubled relationship with her own environment.

Registration of Speech

It presents popular speech... Continue reading "Analyzing Impersonal Prayer: Gender, Society, and Postmodernism" »

Social Classes in the 19th Century

Aristocracy and Wealthy Elites

Circles were common in private clubs and casinos frequented by the richest. Aristocratic salons and balls were prevalent. Clothing was ostentatious, and abundant appearance was cared for to enhance social standing.

Farmworkers: The Peasants

Despite the changes, peasants remained the largest population group in the early 20th century. Their lifestyle was traditional, and their views were conservative. Peasants were hostile to liberalism and socialism initially and did not support the notional cause. In contrast, they demonstrated support for conservatives, order, and religion.

Groups:

• The Wealthy: Liberal measures benefited them, and they became landowners.
• The Landless Laborers: They

The Phenomenon of Bilingualism: Languages in Contact

The coexistence of two languages in the same area may give rise to two linguistic phenomena: bilingualism and diglossia.

Diglossia

Diglossia is a cultural anthropological phenomenon in which a language with more social and political prestige dominates another language with which it coexists. Its uses are unbalanced, and the second language, restricted to family communication and colloquial situations, is in danger of being lost.

Traits that Define Diglossia:

• Function and Prestige: One language holds higher social prestige and is used in formal settings.
• Acquisition: Language A is learned and perfected in school, while language B is primarily acquired at home.
• Literary Legacy: Scholarly literature

Constitution of 1837

Key Features:

• Sovereignty: Shared between the King and the Cortes.
• Division of Powers: The Crown maintained greater powers than in the Constitution of 1812.
• Individual Rights: Recognized individual rights and freedom of the press.
• Bicameral Cortes:
  • Upper House (Senate): Composed of large landowners, half appointed by the monarch and half elected by popular vote based on a census.
  • Lower House (Congress): Composed of members elected by direct vote based on a census.

Constitution of 1845

Key Features:

• Sovereignty: Shared between the King and the Cortes.
• Division of Powers: Strengthened royal authority but with responsibility.
• Recognition of Some Rights: Limited recognition of individual rights.
• Bicameral Cortes:
  • Senate: Composed of an unlimited

Item 1: At birth, cities can concentrate political and economic power, enabling them to impose bans and punish non-compliance. In Greek cities, values of respect for the law and the constitution were paramount. The state maintained a balance of free men before the law, based on free will, not force. The ideal city-states allowed citizens to integrate and feel a sense of community. Life in a defined territory, along with participation, fostered a connection to the community's politics.

The city was a school of citizenship, teaching civilized living. The constitution of Cleisthenes was the fundamental law for male citizens of Athens. All citizens over 20 years old participated in the Assembly. Magistrates had high turnover, ensuring no citizen... Continue reading "City Evolution: From Ancient Greece to Modern Urbanism" »

The Realistic Novel

A realistic novel fulfills a social need, arising as a reaction to the idealistic novel. It portrays the society of the time, reflecting real problems. Its characters are of low social status and it often takes place in cities. It serves as both entertainment and social commentary. The picaresque novel is the most representative example of this genre.

Picaresque Novel

The rogue is a humble character, driven to crime by need and hunger. The picaresque novel is often autobiographical, intends to moralize, and provides a critical view of society.

The Baroque Period

Historical Background

• Political Crisis: The political system was characterized by absolute monarchy, with governments often in the hands of favorites.
• Economic Crisis: