Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Foundational US Political Concepts

Limited Government

The principle that government power is restricted, positing that certain things are out of the government's boundaries because of citizens' natural rights.

Colonial Charters

Documents granted to American colonies by English kings establishing governments; they fostered the American tradition of written constitutions.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, drafted by James Madison, which place limitations on government and protect natural rights. Most state constitutions have a version of this.

Commonwealth

Although four states call themselves commonwealths (Pennsylvania, Virginia, Massachusetts, and Kentucky), the term refers to any self-governing community and currently

Social Divisions: Not Just Big Countries Like India?

It is not correct to say that social divisions exist only in big countries like India. We can take the example of Belgium. The ethnic composition of this small country is very complex. Of the country’s total population, 59% live in the Flemish region and speak the Dutch language. Another 40% live in the Wallonia region and speak French. The remaining 1% of Belgians speak German. In the capital city, Brussels, 80% of people speak French while 20% are Dutch-speaking.

Multiple Identities in Different Contexts Explained

The statement "We have different identities in different contexts" can be supported by the following facts:

• It is common for people belonging to the same religion to feel that they

Why Politics and Social Divisions Should Not Mix

It is true that politics and social divisions should not be allowed to mix, as it often leads to negative results. This is particularly evident when caste begins to influence politics.

• Each caste group attempts to expand by incorporating neighbouring castes or subcastes that were previously excluded. This leads to the emergence of new caste groupings, such as backward and forward castes. This trend is unhealthy for democracy and can result in tensions, conflicts, and even violence. It also diverts attention from critical issues like poverty, development, and corruption.
• Political parties and candidates appeal to caste sentiment to garner support during elections. Some parties are known to favour

Groupthink: Seek Agreement and Effective Leadership

Reasons for groupthink include being out of touch, lack of order and resources, and being overruled. Symptoms of groupthink include omnipotence, closed-mindedness, and pressure toward uniformity.

Situational Leadership

Situational leadership suggests that there is no specific best style, but rather the best style is the one adapted to the situation at hand. One way of situational leadership is the leader's flexibility in adapting their behaviors to the demands of the situation. Another way is the leader's ability to read a situation and select the appropriate behaviors for that specific circumstance. An example of situational leadership is Hersey and Blanchard's model, which focuses on the leader'... Continue reading "Groupthink: Seeking Agreement and Effective Leadership" »

1. What force pulled a nebula inward to make our solar system? Gravity

2. How much of the solar nebula was pulled into the sun (percentage)? 99%

3. How were the planets made from the leftover gas and dust? The gas & dust contracted into planetesimals, which collided, merged and formed protoplanets. The protoplanets accumulated more rocks until they became planets.

4. How did Earth get its layers? Differentiation; the most dense matter moved to the center, lighter masses were pushed up.

5. Which gases made up Earth’s earliest atmosphere? What happened to them? Hydrogen and helium; they floated off into space because the Earth’s gravity was not strong enough to hold them down.

6. What gases were next to fill the atmosphere? Where did they

Gender Equality and Cultural Change: A Global Analysis

(Based on research by Inglehart and Norris)

Theoretical Frameworks of Gender and Politics

The Orthodox Account of Female Conservatism

• Historically, it was believed that when women gained the right to vote, a distinctive "women's vote" would emerge, with women voting as a bloc across various issues.
• While gender differences in voting were relatively small, women were more likely to support center-right parties in Western Europe and the United States. This phenomenon was termed the Traditional Gender Gap.

Theories of Gender Dealignment

• Later voting studies indicated that the old pattern was no longer relevant. Outcomes were shown to rely more on specific political circumstances than on gender. For

Limitations on Free Speech

Sedition Act of 1918 and the Smith Act of 1940

The Sedition Act of 1918 was eventually superseded by the Smith Act of 1940.

Under these legal frameworks, citizens retain the right to criticize the government, but they cannot threaten to harm the government in a speech or advocate for its violent overthrow.

Obscenity and Offensive Speech: Miller v. California (1973)

The Supreme Court established a three-pronged test for determining obscenity, based on community standards:

1. Is the purpose of the material "prurient" (appealing to morbid or lascivious interests)? (Based on community standards)
2. Is the material patently offensive to most people? (Based on community standards)
3. Does the material lack serious artistic, literary, political,

The Intertwined Relationship Between Language and Identity

It is widely accepted that language significantly shapes our identity. The role of language within the broader social context is crucial, particularly as a symbolic attachment that reinforces identity. Furthermore, identity is undeniably linked to ethnicity, which can be understood as a sense of group belonging derived from shared bonds like language, race, or religion. While this definition may seem abstract, ethnicity can be clarified by examining its specific characteristics.

The Significance of Ethnic Group Boundaries

We are all members of an ethnic group (ethnos - nation), although dominant groups often do not identify themselves as such. Boundaries between groups are paramount, as... Continue reading "Language's Role in Shaping Ethnic Identity" »

Marxist Theory

Human beings are trying to cover basic need, biological necessities. Men are compelled to produce those things. Life from a Marxist point of view is the process where human beings first make products to satisfy their needs, and secondly make themselves making products. Marx defines us as workers. We express ourselves in labor, working. When the product of workers' labor belongs to other people, the workers' humanity is stolen or abducted. In private property, his product is separated from workers, he looks himself alienated. In human history, human life has had:

1. Material needs and scarcity poverty
2. Alienation

He is following Feuerbach to establish his idea of original religion, is the fact that human beings live with basic necessities,... Continue reading "Marxist Theory and Post-Marxist Perspectives on Society" »