Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Early Concepts of Intelligence

In psychology, the concept of intelligence has evolved over time and is defined in different ways according to various authors.

Francis Galton: Biological Fitness

One of the first was Francis Galton (19th century), who defined intelligence as a general biological fitness, determined by genetic factors considered unmodifiable. Galton thus argued that education and teaching could not change this inherent intelligence.

Binet and Simon: The First IQ Test

In the 20th century, Binet and Simon published the first modern intelligence test. Its main objective was to identify students needing help to meet school requirements. In collaboration with Simon, Binet published revisions of his intelligence scale.

Factorial Theories

The Partner Perspective in Sports: Empirical Science and Society Studies

This collection series examines the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) and independent American and former French colonies. It explores the development of the 19th century, including societal changes like technological advancements, transportation, demographic growth, social mobility, and bureaucratization. Modern sports are a parallel phenomenon to social development, culture, and globalization. Distinct dimensions of sociology are considered:

• Functional (organic): Society as an interconnected system.
• Marxist: Focuses on the struggle between different interest groups.
• Figurative: Examines how conduct is regulated.
• Structuralism: Analyzes social classes.
• Symbolic

Understanding Affectivity

Affectivity is a set of emotions, feelings, and passions that individuals experience internally in response to thoughts, events, or during their lifetime.

Characteristics of Affectivity

• They are natural, subjective, and often difficult to communicate fully. All individuals experience affectivity, which is expressed verbally and through gestures.
• Affectivity oscillates between opposing poles, such as joy and sorrow, attraction and rejection, pleasure and displeasure.

Its external manifestations are evident in an individual's demeanor. For example, if love is the dominant affect in a subject's life at a specific moment, it reflects joy, optimism, and enthusiasm for change. If that love is unrequited, it shows decline, pessimism,... Continue reading "Understanding Affectivity: Emotions, Feelings, and Passions in Psychology" »

Corporate Image and Service Quality

The concept of corporate image is closely tied to the perceived quality of service provided. Given the strong competition among companies today to meet various customer needs, there is growing interest in projecting a positive image.

Types of Organizational Communication

Downward Communication

In organizational structures, this category signifies that informational communication flows from a higher authority to a lower one. Therefore, it serves to issue directives from superiors to subordinates.

Upward Communication

This type of communication is the opposite of the previous one. It enables information from subordinates to reach superiors or the administration.

Lateral Communication

Also called horizontal communication,... Continue reading "Corporate Image and Communication Dynamics" »

Defining Culture

Originally, the word 'culture' referred to the cultivation of fields in agriculture. For a field to yield good harvests, it must be cared for, cultivated, and prepared. From this concept of field cultivation, the word 'culture' came to mean the cultivation of the mind or spirit. The human mind was conceived as a field that must be cultivated to yield the best fruits. Thus, culture came to mean education.

Jaeger's Concept of Culture

According to the classicist Werner Jaeger, the concept of culture encompasses the following:

1. The result of education: An educated person is considered cultured.
2. The content of education: Education involves teaching specific skills or content. However, not just anything is taught. The content is selected,

Early Warning Interventions for Child Development

A set of interventions designed for the child population aged 0 to 6 years, involving family and close friends. The objective is to respond as soon as possible to the transient or permanent needs of children who have developmental disorders, or are at risk of developmental delays or allergies. These interventions must consider the whole child and should be planned by an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary team.

Target Population

Children identified as being at high biological and socio-environmental risk, presenting developmental changes or losses.

Areas of Action

Health, education, and social services.

Understanding Hearing Impairment and Deafness

Hearing Impaired (Pathological State)

A pathological... Continue reading "Needs and Interventions for Children with Developmental Disorders" »

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Ask a Question

   The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?

   For a science fair project, some teachers require that the question be something you can measure, preferably with a number.

2. Do Background Research

   Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and internet research to help you find the best way to do things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

3. Construct a Hypothesis

   A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an attempt to answer your question with an explanation that can be tested. A good hypothesis

Miller and Mowrer's Theory

They maintain that while painful stimulation motivates escape behavior after a harmful experience, anxiogenic stimuli stand between the individual and the harmful situation, serving as a protective barrier in space and time.

Miller goes on to say that anxiogenic stimuli may become independent of their original position, thereby gaining autonomy and becoming automated, so that anxiety transforms from an adaptive situation into a pathological situation.

Mandler's Theory

He maintains that anxiety is caused by the disruption of behavioral processes. He does not explain this process as a barrier or obstacle to behavior. According to his theories, the process would involve the following steps:

1. Behavioral disruption leads to

Data Collection Methods and Types

Primary Data vs. Secondary Data

Data can be categorized based on its origin:

Primary Data

Data that previously did not exist in our research and, therefore, we had to collect ourselves (e.g., from surveys).

• Advantages: Tailored to suit specific research needs.
• Disadvantages: High cost in terms of time and money.

Secondary Data

Data that had been collected in a previous independent study and is repurposed for use (e.g., from official sources like the INE, IDESCAT).

• Advantages:
  • Fast and cheap.
  • May contain information difficult to obtain from primary sources.
  • Saves effort.
• Disadvantages:
  • May not align well with the objectives of the current study.
  • May be measured in inadequate units.
  • May refer to a previous, potentially outdated,

Understanding Problem Definition in Public Policy

Problems are not inherent but are constructed, subjective, and driven by the personal interests of the actors involved. Their definition implicitly recognizes the strategies and claims of certain stakeholders. To the extent that a problem is recognized, it exists within the field of public intervention.

Until the late seventies, problems were considered objective, allowing for relatively easy definition and limitation to surmountable technical aspects. However, in the last decade, it has become clear that the definition of public problems is not merely a phase of analysis but also fundamentally determines the resolution and decision-making process.

The Purpose-Driven Definition of Problems

A problem... Continue reading "Problem Definition in Public Policy: From Subjectivity to Solutions" »