Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Understanding Mental Disorders

Significant impairments in psychological functioning are called mental disorders. These psychological or behavioral syndromes occur in response to the distress or disability that a particular event provokes (SHAPSE, 2008) and affect diverse features of someone’s behavior or personality depending on the brain area damaged or the environment the patient is surrounded by (Garety, Kuipers, Fowler, Freeman & Bebbington, 2001). Mental illnesses are caused by maladaptive or dysfunctional traits or by the presence of psychological stressors (APA, 2013).

The World Health Organization (2001) announced that a high percentage of people worldwide will suffer from some mental disorders or brain conditions at some point... Continue reading "Understanding Mental Disorders: Types, Causes, and Impact" »

We constantly see unattainable beauty standards in the media, and it can significantly harm young girls. The media can cause body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, and disordered eating. When girls compare their bodies to what they see in the media, it increases their chances of having a poor body image. Research has shown that media consumption is negatively associated with self-esteem, meaning the more a girl consumes media, the greater the chance she will have lower self-esteem.

Regarding disordered eating, research has shown that constant exposure to unhealthy messages about body image is related to disordered eating behaviors. When young girls see these unhealthy messages, such as the need for a thigh gap or a flat stomach, it can increase... Continue reading "The Media's Unrealistic Beauty Standards and Their Impact on Young Girls" »

The British Psychological Society (BPS) defines psychology as the scientific study of the human mind and behavior, while the American Psychological Association (APA) corroborates that the definition of psychology embraces all aspects of human experience. Psychologists typically observe, measure, and test before arriving at conclusions rooted in sound scientific methodology.

Moreover, psychology is a broad field with many different sub-disciplines that share a common objective: promoting health and human welfare. This document aims to describe these diverse branches of psychology.

Key Branches of Psychology

Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology is the branch focused on assessing, diagnosing, and treating mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders... Continue reading "Understanding the Diverse Branches of Psychology" »

Understanding Well-being and Health

Contrary to popular belief, illness is not merely the absence of health, and being healthy does not necessarily mean that a person is well in all respects, both psychologically and physically. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."

The Rise of Positive Psychology

In the last 60 years, psychologists have used the Disease Model to help alleviate suffering. However, a contemporary challenge in psychology is discovering how to promote health and improve people's lives. This is the central focus of positive psychology.

Techniques for Enhancing Well-being

Martin Seligman, a pioneer in positive... Continue reading "Promoting Well-being: Positive Psychology & Behavior Change" »

Language Learning Strategies

2 main groups:

• Direct strategies: Involve use of language (memory, cognitive, compensation)
• Indirect strategies: not directly involve use of language, but support language learning (social, metacognitive, affective)

Memory Strategy

Semantic mapping: connect concepts with key words. Enclose related words in the same field.

Cognitive Strategy

Reasoning deductively, when understanding only a few words of the sentence.

Compensation Strategies

Example: use mime or gestures to describe something without words.

England

Compensation, mime/social strategy, clarify/take risks wisely.

Autonomous Learning

Describes a process in which individuals take the initiative. Diagnose your own learning needs, formulate learning goals, choose and... Continue reading "Effective Language Learning Strategies and Gamification" »

SMART Objectives in Education

What is a SMART Objective?

A SMART objective is a specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound goal set for student learning. Each element is crucial for creating effective learning experiences:

Specific

The objective has to be precise enough to show the learning outcome you want to get with your students.

Measurable

How will you know that your students have achieved the goal? What kind of indicators will I see, hear, or feel by the end of the lesson?

Achievable

The objective can be reached by students taking into consideration time, previous knowledge, and other constraints of the group.

Relevant

The objective has to be meaningful for students and it has to meet, if possible, students’ interests.

Time-Bound

Will... Continue reading "SMART Objectives in Education: A Comprehensive Guide" »

What is Psychology?

Etymology of Psychology

Greek: psyche (soul, spirit)

Greek: logos (study)

Definition of Psychology

Science that studies the behavior of individuals and their mental processes, including internal influences that occur within individuals and in their physical and social environment.

Importance of Psychology

It is important to understand the psychological aspects of oneself and others to adapt more appropriately to the environment, especially during college life and adulthood.

What are Psychological Processes?

Aspects of the psyche that enable people to perform various psychological actions and cognitive functions in daily life.

Perception

The mode in which the body and mind work so that we are aware and realize what is happening in our... Continue reading "Understanding Psychology: Core Concepts" »

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)

Social Cognitive Theory is an interpersonal theory that covers determinants of behavior and processes of behavior change. It posits that behavior, cognitive, personal, and environmental factors interact.

Key Concepts:

• Reciprocal Determinism: Behavior is influenced by and influences personal factors and the environment.
• Personal Factors:
  • Outcome Expectancies: Anticipated effects of a behavior (physical, social, self-evaluative).
  • Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability in specific situations (magnitude, strength, generality).
• Environmental Factors: Social and physical conditions.

Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991)

This theory suggests that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control influence... Continue reading "Psychological Theories of Health Behavior Change" »

Freud's Economic Theory of Psychoanalysis

Freud's economic theory of psychoanalysis posits that psychic energy increases, decreases, moves, or is released and distributed throughout the human psyche, activating its different processes.

Freud's Drive Theory of Psychoanalysis

Freud used the term "drive" to refer to instinctual impulses. These drives are characterized by:

• Source: A bodily organ that produces a drive through an active process. Different sources give rise to different impulses. (Unintegrated impulses manifest in adult subjects as perversions).
• Drive Peremptory: An energetic and motor factor of variable intensity that pushes the body toward satisfaction, which the subject cannot avoid. Its character is psychological rather than biological.