Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is the center of the world, in the sense that all other cultures are classified according to their degree of approximation to the mainstream culture. Ethnocentrism has sometimes been presented as a scientific doctrine, as the Nazis attempted to establish rigorous biological criteria to distinguish different races. A graphic illustration of the critique of ethnocentrism is provided by the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss when he says that "The savage is he who calls another savage."

Although ethnocentrism is a critical concept, not all human cultures are comparable because there are significant differences between their cultural traits. While no culture... Continue reading "Ethnocentrism and Cultural Evolution: Understanding Differences" »

Cognitive psychology is a discipline that studies processes such as perception, memory, language, attention, and other processes involved in the handling of information by the subject.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget is known for his genetic theory of cognitive development, which proposes that children actively construct their understanding of the world through interaction.

Intelligence, according to Piaget, is the ability to maintain a constant adaptation of the subject's schemas to the world in which they operate.

Adaptation explains the development process of learning and is divided into two sub-processes:

• Assimilation: Integrating new information or experiences into existing schemas. For example, understanding a new concept

Understanding Heterosexuality

Heterosexuality is a sexual orientation characterized by sexual attraction, love, or sexual desire for people of the opposite sex. This contrasts with homosexuality and is usually distinguished from bisexuality.

Besides referring to sexual orientation, the term heterosexual also refers to sexual behavior between individuals of the opposite sex. Many animal species (those that engage in sexual reproduction and internal fertilization), including humans, reproduce through heterosexual sex. This is unlike hermaphroditic species, in which all individuals possess both sexes.

Homosexuality

Homosexuality (from the Greek ομος, homo, meaning 'equal', and the Latin sexus, meaning 'sex') is a sexual orientation defined... Continue reading "Understanding Heterosexuality and Related Sexual Practices" »

What is Research?

Research is the intentional search for knowledge or solutions to scientific problems. The scientific method shows the way to journey through that investigation, and the techniques needed provide a way to navigate it. It is characterized by being reflective, systematic, and methodical. It is developed through a process.

Importance of Research

Research becomes important because it helps to solve social problems, build new theories, etc.

Evaluating Research Importance

Here are three criteria for evaluating the potential importance of research:

• Convenience: How convenient is the research?
• Social Relevance: What is its importance to society? Who will benefit from the research results?
• Practical Implications: Does it solve real problems?

Faculties of Psychological Knowledge

Perception

Perception involves capturing external elements through the senses. The mechanism of perception follows this sequence: stimulus, touch, sensations, and brain (linguistic, motor, pathological). Attention focuses on a specific stimulus while diminishing others.

Memory

Memory encompasses capturing, storing, and reproducing information received through the senses or intuition. A memorization technique involves understanding, synthesizing, internalizing, and applying the information.

Imagination

Imagination involves capturing and saving ideas, but also altering and combining them, such as envisioning a giant mountain of gold. Without imagination, there would be neither science nor art.

Intelligence

Intelligence... Continue reading "Understanding Psychological Knowledge, Ethics, and Cognitive Development" »

The Need for Culture in Human Beings

The closed world of animals contrasts with the open world of human beings. While animals are governed by instincts to solve particular problems within their habitat, humans barely retain any instincts. Humans must invent strategies to solve problems in today's world.

Humans are not born with instincts or culture, but with the ability to acquire them. This is because, during evolution, the pelvis of women became narrower, and the heads of offspring grew increasingly larger. This resulted in offspring being born at an earlier neural stage and therefore, less developed. However, in exchange for instincts at birth, humans have an ability to learn and be educated, to solve their problems with the knowledge they... Continue reading "Human Culture and Socialization: Language and Thought" »

Sociology as a Science

Sociology is the scientific study of society, social relations, and the functioning of social structures, groups, institutions, and social actions.

Principles of the Marxist Paradigm

1. Law of Universal Interaction: Everything is interconnected, and society consists of interrelated elements.
2. Law of Contrary Unity: Everything is in constant transformation and conflict, generating permanent investigation into social phenomena within their context.
3. Law of Spiral Development: The new integrates and perfects the old without destroying it, leading to continuous development.

Difficulties in Studying and Delimiting the Object of Sociology

1. Reflexivity: We are both the subject and object of study, making it challenging to maintain objectivity.

Thought: A Comprehensive Exploration

Definition of Thought

Thought is the psychic process by which representations of abstract objects, phenomena, or events of reality are formed in the form of concepts, judgments, and reasoning.

Key Concepts

• Image: Virtual representations formed by all human beings from conception, relating to the rational, subjective, and inner processes of knowing, understanding, judging, and reasoning about objectives and actions.
• Language: The function of expressing thought in written form for communication and understanding between human beings.
• Thought: A rational, objective, and external psychological phenomenon derived from thinking to solve everyday problems.

The thought process is a means of planning and action to overcome... Continue reading "Understanding Thought Processes and Their Significance" »

Memory: Transformations Over Time

Memory refers to the transformations that occur in information over time. From the multi-store model, it is understood that memory is a complex and active system working with multiple interconnected components.

• Recording Information: Information is perceived and encoded.
• Storing Information: The encoded information is stored using multifunctional matrices selected by the individual.
• Retrieving Information: Information is retrieved from memory based on the store in which it was processed.

Three Systems of Information Fixation

1. Sensory Memory

   Information in sensory memory disappears within approximately one second.

2. Short-Term Memory

   Information in short-term memory fades within approximately 20 seconds.

3. Long-Term Memory

   Information

Sensation vs. Perception

1. What is the difference between sensation and perception?

Sensation occurs when a sense organ detects a concrete stimulus. Perception occurs when the brain integrates these stimuli, making the individual aware of the sensation. Perception is the processing of information from stimuli.

Sensory Integration

2. Summarize sensory integration.

Sensory integration is the process of combining information from the senses to create meaning. This is essential for a child to understand the world.

Parker's Conclusions

3. What is Parker's (1991) conclusion regarding perception, sensation, and attention?

Parker asserts that perception, sensation, and attention are sufficiently developed at birth to enable interaction between mother and... Continue reading "Sensation, Perception, and Cognitive Development: Key Concepts" »