Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Constitutional Amendments & Policing

Key Amendments

• 4th Amendment: Searches and seizures (exclusionary rule)
• 5th Amendment:
  • Grand jury indictment
  • Double jeopardy
  • Due process
  • Self-incrimination
• 6th Amendment:
  • Public and speedy trial
  • Impartial jury
  • Notice of the nature and cause of accusation
  • Confront opposing witness
  • Assistance of counsel
• 8th Amendment:
  • Excessive bail
  • Cruel and unusual punishment

Policing Duties and Constitutional Protections

• Arrest
• Searches
  • Searches with warrants
  • Searches without warrants
• Interrogations

Incarceration Disparities

Black people are incarcerated at a rate 80% higher than whites.

Deterrence and Capital Punishment

Summary of Deterrence: The idea that abolishing the death penalty leads to a rise in murder has little support. There's no... Continue reading "Constitutional Rights & Criminal Justice System Overview" »

Effective Language Learning

Cognitive Factors

Learning Styles

Learning styles are modes of thinking and behaving. They are related to the particular way each individual learns how to learn, and they change with age.

• Children tend to lack learning autonomy.
• Adults tend to have learning autonomy.

Learning Strategies

Learning strategies are specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques students use, often consciously, to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, and using a foreign language. They are tools that learners can use to develop L2 communicative ability.

• These tools favor active and self-directive learner involvement in the learning process.
• Their conscious use is related to language achievement and proficiency.
• The age factor

Soft Skills: Essential Attributes for Success

Soft skills are a set of interpersonal and personal attributes that are not necessarily quantifiable or measurable, but significantly determine work performance and career success. They encompass how you interact with others and manage yourself.

Key Soft Skills Categories

• Self-Management Skills:
  • Self-awareness
  • Emotional management
  • Self-confidence
  • Patience
  • Stress management
  • Resilience
  • Critical thinking and problem-solving
  • Persistence and perseverance
• People Skills:
  • Communication skills
  • Presentation skills
  • Facilitating skills
  • Interviewing skills
  • Selling skills
  • Ability to think/work under pressure
  • Influence (unintentional) / Persuasion skills (intentional)
  • Teamwork skills
  • Leadership
  • Interpersonal relationship skills
  • Negotiation

Key Motivational Theories

Theory X and Theory Y

• Theory X: Focuses on physiological needs, safety, and security needs.
• Theory Y: Focuses on love (social) needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs.

ERG Theory

• Existence Needs: Encompass physiological and physical safety needs.
• Relatedness Needs: Encompass interpersonal safety, love, and esteem needs.
• Growth Needs: Encompass self-actualization and self-esteem needs.

McClelland's Need Theory

Manifest Needs: Learned or acquired needs that are easily perceived.

• Need for Achievement: Encompasses excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties. People with a high need for achievement perform better.
• Need for Power: Concerns the desire to influence others, change people

Chapter 14: Public Order Crimes

Defining Public Order Crimes

Public order crime involves acts that interfere with the operations of society and the ability of people to function efficiently. It is behavior that has been labeled criminal because it is contrary to shared norms, social values, and customs.

Also known as victimless crime.

Paraphilia

Paraphilia is a condition characterized by abnormal sexual desires, typically involving extreme or dangerous activities. Types include:

1. Asphyxiophilia: Attempting partial asphyxia and oxygen deprivation to the brain to enhance sexual gratification.
2. Frotteurism: Rubbing against or touching a non-consenting person in a crowd, elevator, or public area.
3. Voyeurism: Obtaining sexual pleasure from spying on a stranger

Chapter 3: Mediated Communication

What is Mediated Communication?

Mediated communication is the process of communicating with others through technological devices. These devices act as intermediaries, separating the sender and receiver of the message.

Mass Media vs. Social Media

Mass media refers to one-way communication channels where content creators send messages to large, anonymous audiences. Examples include television, radio, and newspapers.

Social media, on the other hand, facilitates two-way communication, allowing users to send and receive messages in real-time or across time intervals. This enables individuals to manage personal and professional relationships.

Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Communication

Synchronous communication involves... Continue reading "Understanding Mediated Communication and Culture: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Ethical Leadership and Workplace Politics Effects

Political behavior at work moderates the effects of ethical leadership. One study found male employees were more responsive to ethical leadership and showed the most citizenship behavior when levels of both politics and ethical leadership were high. Women, on the other hand, appeared most likely to engage in citizenship behavior when the environment was consistently ethical and apolitical.

Defensive Behaviors in Political Environments

When employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with defensive behaviors—reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change. In the short run, employees may find that defensiveness protects their self-interest, but in the long run, it... Continue reading "Workplace Politics, Ethical Leadership & Employee Behavior" »

Social Impairment and Conformity

Social impairment occurs when an individual acts in a less positive way or performs worse when they are around others. Conformity can be defined as adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match those of other people or a group standard.

Asch’s Experiment on Social Pressure

In Asch’s experiment, students were asked which bar was longer. Only one participant was naive; the others were confederates. Eventually, the confederates began providing the wrong answer. Due to peer pressure, the naive participant often gave the incorrect answer as well. The study investigated the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform. With one naive participant and seven confederates, about... Continue reading "Social Psychology: Conformity, Obedience, and Group Dynamics" »

Causes of Violence

Several factors contribute to violent behavior:

1. Human Evolution and Instinct: Evolutionary factors and inherent aggression.
2. Substance Abuse: The influence of alcohol and drugs.
3. Handguns and Firearms: Access and use of weapons.
4. Socialization and Upbringing: Early life experiences and learned behaviors.
5. Exposure to Violence: Witnessing or experiencing violence.
6. Cultural Values/Subculture of Violence: Societal norms that accept or promote violence.

Rape: Definition and Context

Rape is legally defined as "the carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will."

Population density significantly influences rape rates. Metropolitan areas generally have higher rape rates than rural areas, although urban areas have seen a more substantial... Continue reading "Understanding Violence: Causes, Types, and Factors" »