Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems

The Problem of Induction

Inductive reasoning goes from the particular to the general, from the observed to the unobserved.

Practical Problems

• How many observations are enough?
• Even well-confirmed hypotheses can later turn out to be wrong.
• Most scientists believe they really are discovering the fundamental laws of the universe, yet we have observed only a minute fraction of the universe.

Theoretical Problem

Science is supposed to be an empirical discipline that makes no claims beyond what is observed. However, this would stop any hypothesis from going from the particular to the general.

Key Thinkers and Scientific Method

Karl Popper (1902-94)

Rejected theories that tried to explain everything.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937)

Believed that human beings are dominated... Continue reading "The Problem of Induction in Science" »

117 Ways to Pass the Earth Science Regents

1. The same substance always has the same density.

2. As pressure increases, density increases.

3. As temperature increases, density decreases.

4. Water expands when it freezes.

5. Most changes are cyclic.

6. Water is most dense at 4^oC, when it is a liquid.

7. The true shape of the Earth is an oblate spheroid, but from space it looks like a sphere.

44. As temperature increases, air pressure decreases.

45. As moisture increases, pressure decreases.

46. Air pressure decreases with altitude.

47. Highs are cool and dry; lows are warm and wet.

48. Wind is due to air pressure differences.

49. Wind blows from high to low pressure.

50. Wind is named from the direction that it is coming from.

51. The accepted value is the... Continue reading "Earth Science Regents: 117 Key Concepts" »

British Poetry: 1950s-1970s

This analysis summarizes and discusses the main characteristics of British poetry between the 1950s and the 1970s, with specific reference to the works of Philip Larkin, Ted Hughes, and Seamus Heaney.

A Shift in English Literature

There was a significant shift in English literature during this period, with writers largely avoiding romanticism and modernism. Instead, they focused on writing realistic poetry and novels. Meanwhile, playwrights adopted a more philosophical point of view.

Post-War Dreams and Disappointments

In the aftermath of World War II, a dream for the future emerged, encompassing improved health services, education, and welfare systems. Universities like Oxford, Cambridge, and St. Andrews were no longer... Continue reading "British Poetry: 1950s-1970s - Larkin, Hughes, and Heaney" »

The Significance of April 4, 1984 in Orwell's Novel

By a strange coincidence, the first chapter of George Orwell's famous dystopian novel, 1984, begins on April 4, 1984. On this day, the hero, Winston Smith, takes the first seditious step toward independence from externally imposed structures of meaning: he starts writing a diary. When Winston begins the diary, he writes the date: April 4, 1984.

Winston Smith's Diary: An Act of Rebellion

This attempt to find his own voice symbolizes the hope of liberation, the cleansing of consciousness from imposed ideas, and the movement towards a goal, however hopeless it may seem.

The Search for Truth and Freedom

He wrote:

"Freedom is the right to say that two plus two make four. If that is granted, all else

Heritage Tourism Management

Definition and Management Plan

Management is a process businesses undertake to achieve organizational performance. In order to achieve this goal, a plan called a ‘management plan’ has to be proposed. However, even the best management plan has to have a legal framework and certain tools must exist:

• Administrative
• Financial
• Conservation
• Social

Setting short and long-term strategies for the protection and enhancement of the cultural heritage leads to specific plans and elements, among which should be:

• Boundary Survey and Description
• Land Use Plan
• Conservation
• Utilities and Services Plan
• Community Development Plan
• Tourism Plan

Such a plan of action would help to preserve the sites for future generations. It would also help to... Continue reading "Effective Heritage Tourism Management: Strategies & Planning" »

Mastering Irregular Verbs

LOREM IPSUM

be.was.been.ser.estar.beat.beat.beaten.golpear.become.became.become.llegaraser.begin.began.begun.empezar.bend.bent.bent.doblar.bet.apostar.bite.bit.bitten.morder.bleed.bled.bled.sangrar.blow.blew.blown.soplar.break.broke.broken.romper.bring.brought.brought.traer.build.built.built.construir.burn.burnt.burnt.quemar.buy.bought.bought.comprar.catch.caught.caught.coger.choose.chose.chosen.elegir.come.came.come.venir.cost.cost.cost.gastar.cut.cut.cut.cortar.dig.dug.dug.cavar.do.did.done.hacer.draw.drew.drawn.dibujar.dream.dreamt.dreamt.soñar.drink.drank.drunk.beber.drive.drove.driven.conducir.eat.ate.eaten.comer.fall.fell.fallen.caer.feed.fed.fed.alimentar.feel.felt.felt.sentir.fight.fought.fought.luchar.find.

Model Code of Conduct

In addition to the laws, all political parties in the country have agreed to a model code of conduct for the election campaign. This includes:

• (i) Any place of worship shall not be used for election propaganda.
• (ii) Criticism of the opposing candidates shall be limited to their policies and programs, past record of public service, and not mention of their private personal lives.
• (iii) Government official transport like cars, vehicles, machinery, aircraft, and personnel shall not be used by government officials or ministers.
• (iv) No posters, pamphlets, notices, or slogans shall be placed on any building without the permission of the owner.
• (v) After the elections have been announced, no minister shall lay down foundation stones

The Parliament of India

The Parliament of India comprises the head of state—the President of India—and the two Houses, which constitute the legislature. The President of India is elected for a five-year term by an electoral college consisting of members of federal and state legislatures. The House of the People (Lok Sabha) has 548 members, with 543 members elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies and two members appointed to represent the Anglo-Indian community (as envisaged by the Constitution of India; currently, the members of Lok Sabha are 545, out of which 543 are elected for a 5-year term and 2 members represent the Anglo-Indian community). The 550 members are elected under the plurality ('first past the post') electoral... Continue reading "Indian Parliament and Election Process Explained" »

Principles of Economics

Scarcity and Economics

Scarcity refers to the limited nature of society's resources. Economics is the study of how society manages its scarce resources.

How People Make Decisions

1. People Face Tradeoffs

Every decision involves tradeoffs. A significant tradeoff society faces is between:

• Efficiency: When society gets the most from its scarce resources.
• Equality: When prosperity is distributed uniformly among society's members.

Tradeoff Example: To achieve greater equality, income could be redistributed from the wealthy to the poor. However, this can reduce the incentive to work and produce, shrinking the overall economy.

2. The Cost of Something Is What You Give Up to Get It

Decision-making requires comparing the costs and benefits... Continue reading "Principles of Economics: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Qualitative Variables

Nominal Variables

Nominal variables are qualitative variables that cannot be ordered in an ascending or descending manner; that is, they cannot be ranked. For example, blood group.

Ordinal Variables

Ordinal variables are variables that can be ordered in an ascending or descending manner; that is, they can be ranked.

Quantitative Variables

Discrete Variables

Discrete variables are variables whose values are obtained by counting.

Continuous Variables

Continuous variables are variables whose values are obtained by measurement using a scale.

Mean

Advantages

• Has many good theoretical properties
• Used as the basis of many statistical tests
• Good summary statistic for symmetrical distribution
• Easy to calculate
• Possible for further algebraic treatment

Disadvantages

• Less