Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Primary education

Business Entities and Tax Implications

Taxation of Partnerships

Partnerships are not taxed at the corporate level. Instead, taxes are levied on the individual partners based on their share of the partnership's income.

Taxation of Corporate Entities

Corporations have a separate legal personality and are subject to corporate income tax. Shareholders are also taxed on the dividends they receive.

Justification for Corporate Income Tax

• Avoid tax deferral
• Neutrality
• Incentivize investment

Tax calculation: Tax = Tax Base x Tax Rate

Corporate and Shareholder Tax Systems

Classical System

Corporate profits are taxed at the corporate level, and dividends are taxed again at the shareholder level, resulting in economic double taxation.

Full Integration System

Corporations... Continue reading "Understanding Corporate Taxation: Systems, Distributions, and Debt-Equity Considerations" »

Tax Deductions: An International Comparison

Income Tax Imposition

Income tax is imposed on gross income minus deductible expenditures. Generally, you cannot use expenses from one category of income to offset profits belonging to another. Expenses related to business activity may have specific deductions, while employment income often has standard deductions. Personal expenditures are generally not deductible. Mixed business and personal expenses are generally not deductible unless specific rules apply. For example, the UK does not allow deductions for mixed expenses. However, some countries like Australia, Sweden, and France allow deductions upon apportionment.

Specific Deductible Expenses

Commuting Expenses

Travel from and to work is generally... Continue reading "Tax Deductions and Capitalization: International Comparison" »

Fascism vs. Nazism

Fascism and Nazism are often considered to be the same or at least refer to the same ideologies. However, the two are entirely dissimilar from each other. This is despite the fact that they are both totalitarian ideologies, are closely related in design, and both sprung up after the First World War in Europe.

What is Fascism?

Fascism is defined as a form of radical authoritarian, strict, and controlling ultra-nationalism that is usually characterized by forcibly suppressing an opposition front, assuming dictatorial powers, and strongly regimenting the society and its economy.

Fascism sprung to popularity around the early 20th century during the time of Benito Mussolini. Benito was the Italian leader by the time the ideology was... Continue reading "Fascism and Nazism: Key Differences and History" »

Primo de Rivera

In 1923 another pronunciamiento took place: General Miguel Primo de Rivera came to power with the consent of the king. Public disorder was rampant, and the system wasn't working. Primo de Rivera had been in Catalonia as Captain General. They thought he could bring calm and peace.

Primo de Rivera wanted to regenerate the system and later he would give the power back again. It did not work. He stayed for longer than promised and became unpopular. He tried to start a political party, the Unión Patriótica.

His dictatorship can be divided into two periods: Military Directory (1923-1925) and Civil Directory (1925-1930). He had great success at the beginning. Along with the French, the Spanish Army defeated the Moroccan rebel Abd-el-... Continue reading "The Second Spanish Republic: From Dictatorship to Civil War" »

Pharos

Definition:

An island near Alexandria. On the island was a lighthouse.

Location in texts:

Homer’s Odyssey

Significance/theme:

The lighthouse was a great ancient wonder. It shows the large significance and impact that Alexandria had. It also demonstrates the power of Ptolemy.

Callimachus of Cyrene (c. 310-240 BCE)

Definition:

Callimachus was a famous poet and librarian in Alexandria.

Location in texts:

Callimachus’ Pinakes

Significance/theme:

He was responsible for producing a bibliographic survey based upon the contents of the Library. His work provided the foundation for later work on the history of Greek literature.

Nicander of Colophon (2nd c. BCE)

Definition:

Greek poet, physician, and librarian.

Location in texts:

Nicander’s Theriaka and Alexipharmaka

Significance/

Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The relief of Bosnia and Herzegovina is mainly hilly and mountainous, with only 13.53% of the land situated between 0-200 meters above sea level. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a surface area of 51,209 square kilometers, of which the seaside is 12.2 square kilometers. In 1991, 4.38 million people lived in the country. Based on this, the average population density is around 85 inhabitants per square kilometer. According to the results of the 2013 census, there are 3,531,159 inhabitants in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Today, about 70% of the population lives in urban areas.

Bosnia and Herzegovina is shaped like a triangle. One side extends east-west, the other north-south, while the hypotenuse runs northwest-... Continue reading "Geography and Geology of Bosnia and Herzegovina" »

My Monday Routine

Routine:

In my daily routine on Mondays, I get up at 7:00 o'clock. I have breakfast at 7:30. I go to university with my friend by car. When we finish at university, I go home and have lunch with my family. I go for a walk with my dog. After that, I study to learn to sail a boat and study sailing. When I finish studying, I go back home with my friend in his car. It is fun. To finish my day, I always take my dog for a run. Then I have dinner and go to bed.

Friends (Amigos)

Amigos:

I have many friends, but my best friend is Raul. I see Raul every day in class because he is my classmate. He is a very good friend to me because he helps me with my homework. He is tall, has black hair, and brown eyes. My other friend's name is Paco; he'... Continue reading "Daily Life: Routine, Friends, Family and Holiday Memories" »

Human Digestive System Processes

Digestion involves two main types of processes:

• Mechanical Digestion: Food is ground, cut, and mixed with juices.
• Chemical Digestion: Food is broken down by hydrolytic enzymes.

1. Digestion in the Mouth

Mastication

This is the mechanical process involving the teeth and tongue. Food is torn and ground into small pieces.

Insalivation

Food is mixed with saliva. Pieces of food are moistened to form a bolus. Saliva is produced by the salivary glands and contains:

• Salivary Amylase: Responsible for the digestion of starch.
• Mucin: Gives viscosity to the saliva.
• Lysozyme: Attacks bacteria.

2. Deglutition (Swallowing)

The food bolus moves from the mouth towards the pharynx and passes the epiglottis. The bolus then enters the oesophagus,... Continue reading "Human Digestive System: Stages and Processes" »

Key Religious Concepts Defined

Understanding Prophets and Call Stories

What is a Prophet?

A spokesperson for God.

Examples: Moses, Ezekiel.

The Call Story: Divine Invitation

A series of narratives detailing God's calling of individuals and entrusting them with a mission.

Covenant: A Sacred Agreement

A sacred agreement or solemn promise.

Revelation: God's Self-Disclosure

The act of God revealing Himself and His ethical principles.

How God is Revealed

• The Prophets: God's self-revelation to prophets.
• Nature: Through changing seasons and the natural world.
• Sacred Scriptures: Through which the actions of God in human history are revealed.
• Jesus: Through whom God fully revealed Himself.

The Nature of Human Relationship with God

Life at its core is a relationship... Continue reading "Divine Covenants and Revelation: Core Concepts" »

Key Economic & Fiscal Policy Terms

Understanding the language of economics and government finance is crucial. This glossary defines essential terms related to fiscal policy, budgeting, and economic theory.

Appropriations Bill

A legislative bill that sets money aside for specific government spending.

Automatic Stabilizer

A government program designed to automatically adjust based on changes in GDP and a person's income, helping to stabilize the economy.

Balanced Budget

A financial plan where government revenue and spending are equal.

Budget Deficit

A situation in which the government spends more money than it collects in revenue.

Budget Surplus

A situation in which the government collects more money in revenue than it spends.

Classical Economics

An economic