Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Plato's Theory of Ideas: Ontological Significance

The problem of nature, with its ethical-political justification, posits that goodness and happiness are possible only within a just *polis*, governed by sound laws. This theory states that there are two worlds:

• The world of Ideas or Intelligible Forms, which is the truly real world, graspable only by intelligence. Knowledge, achieved through study, requires the purification and cultivation of the soul. In these Ideas lies the nature of being; they are the authentic, universal reality from which the physical world derives.
• The sensible world, recognized through the senses, which has no true existence. It is not real but merely an appearance of being, an imitation of the world of Ideas.

Characteristics

Karl Marx: Value, Profit, and Alienation

Value and Profit

• Merchandise has a use value and an actual exchange value, which is an amount of money that depends on the working time necessary to produce the goods.
• Goods also have a market exchange value, which depends on the law of supply and demand.
• The difference between the market value of the product and its real value (or cost price) is the capitalist's profit.
• There is also a profit that comes from the difference between the actual value of work and the wages paid to workers.

Alienation

Marx believes that alienation occurs particularly within a specific social class: the proletariat. For Marx, there are historical and socioeconomic conditions that cause alienation.

Marx's concept of man is active,... Continue reading "Karl Marx: Concepts of Value, Profit, and Alienation" »

Key Philosophical Concepts

This document provides concise definitions for a range of fundamental philosophical terms, from ancient Greek thought to modern theories. Each entry clarifies the meaning and context of essential concepts that shape our understanding of existence, knowledge, ethics, and society.

Humanism

The doctrine that places humanity at the center of all things, emphasizing human values, reason, and agency.

Idea

An intuited universal concept, existing in the mind, whether in the Platonic sense as an eternal form or in the modern sense as a mental construct.

Identity

The first principle of thought, often expressed as "A is A," signifying self-sameness and non-contradiction.

Image

A sensitive representation or reproduction of an object,... Continue reading "Key Philosophical Concepts Defined" »

The State: Political Organization and Defining Criteria

The **state** is a form of political organization of a community within its territory, establishing a legal system, and regulating economic and social relations. We understand the state as a form of political organization that:

• Divides society into the rulers and the governed.
• Is linked to a specific community, obligating the state to establish membership criteria (dividing citizens and foreign nationals).
• Is associated with territory, demanding the establishment of borders.
• Establishes economic criteria, property ownership, a certain way of relating to people, and a legislative system.

Utopian Ideals and Early Political Thought

A **utopia** is an ideal of coexistence. The first version of utopian... Continue reading "Foundations of Political Philosophy: State, Utopia, and Power" »

Events

Events that update being. That would be the ability or potency. Thomas Aquinas distinguishes between what things are (essence) and the fact that they exist (existence). The essence is potency ('can exist or not'); existence is act.

Absolute Good

One of God's attributes. As He is absolute being, He is absolute good.

Efficient Cause

In general, it is the causal principle that in some way influences being. The efficient cause or agent is the principle of change, that which makes it possible to actualize a being. Aquinas distinguishes between the primary cause (God, the ultimate cause, not caused by another) and secondary causes (those that were caused by another).

God

Pure Act. Being in which there is no composition of matter and form, or of essence... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas: Core Metaphysical and Theological Concepts" »

Human Rights

Concept

The powers of the people that are acquired by the mere fact of their birth and which correspond to all individuals equally and cannot be altered or deleted by other persons or the state.

Features

1. Natural: Because they belong to the person, by the mere fact of their birth, without being recognized by law or by the state.
2. Universal: Because they pertain to all individuals equally, regardless of race, sex, religion, etc.
3. Mandatory: Because they must be complied with and respected by all.
4. Inviolable: Because they cannot be disturbed or altered by anyone.
5. Inalienable: Because they cannot be traded or waived by anyone. Example: the right to physical integrity.
6. Indivisible: For altering one of them puts at risk or alters any other.

Rationale

1. Philosophical:

The Evolving Family Model

Writers such as Octavio Estela Fernández Grassi and Mouján suggest that we are experiencing a profound transformation of the family model. This transformation may appear to be a sign of exhaustion, but there are many ways of being a family. This evolution can be considered a crisis, in the sense of concern or a terminal stage. The family is in an accelerated process of change, but it remains in good health when viewed from a contextual and evaluative framework different from that of our ancestors.

The Changing Role of Women

Some of these changes are related to the current modification of the role of women. Women can now enter the labor market, leading to higher expectations of personal satisfaction beyond marriage and... Continue reading "Understanding Family Structures and Dynamics in Modern Society" »

Marx's Conception of Man

Marx viewed man as an active, dynamic, and constantly evolving being who transforms reality. This transformation is undertaken through work, which represents the union of theory and practice. Man is reflected in his work and identifies with it.

However, in this society, man cannot fully realize himself through work because it is not truly his. The fruit of his labor belongs to another, the owner, leading to the alienation of the individual. The product of their work is taken away, becoming foreign, and the more one produces, the poorer one becomes. The worker also feels alienated in their relationships with other men and ultimately becomes distanced from themself, as alienation affects their inner world. Human relationships... Continue reading "Marx, Nietzsche, and Ethical Indeterminism: A Deep Dive" »

Argumentative Text

Subject: The subject on which the question is presented in the argumentative text. The matter should be contested in a manner that is easily approached from different points of view.

Thesis: The position on the subject that the issuer adopts.

Arguments: The reasons the issuer provides to defend their opinion or thesis.

Conclusion: A summary of the basic ideas provided in the intervention.

Purpose of an Argumentative Text: To defend an opinion and persuade the reader.

The Debate

A debate is an oral argumentative essay in which there are two opposing views on a controversial issue, and in which each party defends its point of view. For a debate, there should be a moderator who is responsible for establishing speaking turns and ensuring... Continue reading "Argumentative Texts, Debates, Journalism, and Literature" »

Ethics: Saint Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle

Saint Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle agree on Eudaimonia. Both raise an ethics based on the search for happiness and theologians consider an ultimate end. Man acts for an end, for a good, and the supreme good is happiness. Being happy, for Saint Thomas, is seeing the highest good, and the maximum happiness is to see God and be in Heaven.

We live on Earth, and God gives us laws to live this life. The divine law is the law of God revealed through the apostles. We must meet the eternal law, which only God knows completely. We know some of what God has revealed, but we cannot know all of His will. The law of nature has natural tendencies arising from it. Positive law depends on the natural law, and the moral