Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes

Descartes introduces a mathematical method into philosophy, giving reason as the definitive criterion for human truth.

Doubt and the First Truth

Descartes makes a radical critique of all knowledge, considering all previous knowledge unreliable. His universal method is based on the following reasons:

• Sense-data uncertainty: The senses have deceived us many times. Therefore, Descartes doubts all data originating from the senses, including his own body and the material reality of the world.
• The errors of reasoning: Humans often commit errors. A good part of traditional knowledge is based on reason, but this knowledge has become confused. Therefore, there is reason to doubt all knowledge taken as demonstrated.
• The difficulty distinguishing

Human Dignity: A Fundamental Assumption

Kant believed that what characterizes human beings from a moral standpoint is their inherent dignity. To violate this dignity is to treat a human as a means or a tool. The end is always the person, who has intrinsic value and not a price. Therefore, they cannot be bought. The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "liberty, justice, and peace are universally established values," the realization of which depends on the recognition of the dignity of all. Dignity itself is not a scientific fact; it does not belong to the vocabulary of science. Some try to deduce it from human nature, others from reason. However, describing reality as it is does not mean deducing norms from it. Intelligence... Continue reading "Human Dignity and the Ethical Project: A Foundation for Universal Values" »

Saint Augustine: Existence, Love, and the Pursuit of Knowledge

1. Existence and Love for the Sake of Knowledge

Saint Augustine indicates the first tendency of love as a style of life. All creatures tend towards life; there is a universal desire for life and an aversion to death. This tendency, whose common sense is a witness, manifests in one's own life, pointing to God as its creator. However, if one loves, one's love is will, and free will exists. To know is to love, and to love is to know. One loves and desires love, existence, knowledge, and power. This is unique to humans and not possessed by any other creature, as humans were created in the image and likeness of God.

According to Saint Augustine, everything desires to remain in its being... Continue reading "Saint Augustine: Existence, Love, and Knowledge" »

Key Concepts in Logic and Language

• Logical Structure: Represents the structure of reality or organizes the theories and arguments with which we structure reality and discuss it.
• Ambiguity: The ability to understand something in several ways, admitting multiple interpretations, potentially leading to confusion.
• Paradox: A statement that appears accurate but may lead to a contradiction.
• Contradiction: Saying the opposite of what was previously stated or denying what is considered certain.
• Metalanguage: A language used to describe another language.
• Object Language: The language being described by the metalanguage, often referring to objects.
• Use: Designating something using linguistic expressions and terms in place of the object itself. Use occurs within

Neoplatonism and Christianity

Saint Augustine

Saint Augustine uses terms of the philosophy of the moment to develop his own. He affirms that God created everything from nothing in an absolutely free and loving act, and not as something necessary, as Plotinus affirmed.

Vision of the Human Being

Saint Augustine continues the Platonic dualistic model: the immortal soul uses a mortal body. This soul was created by God, and the body is dominated by original sin. To be saved, humans still need outside help: divine grace, which is applied to the soul. The conception of the soul mirrors the Trinity of God: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The soul also has intelligence and free will.

Saint Augustine speaks of two types of freedom:

• Libertas: This

Values and Moral Norms

Values and Moral Norms: Freedom makes man a moral being by nature. If man is not free, if his conduct was predetermined, it is absurd to speak of moral rules. Rules are present in every individual. In principle, the child is subject to the rules imposed by society. But slowly, consciousness tends to develop its own rules.

Morality Defined

Morality: It is characterized by:

• It is attributed mainly to the relationship between a human act and a moral standard. If the act is consistent with the rule, it is right, and if otherwise, it is unjust.
• Can only be attributed to persons. Never said of an animal or a plant.
• Affects the whole person and not only in part.
• Is imposed as a necessary requirement for all people.

Sources of Values

Objectivism

Sources

The 18th-Century Enlightenment

Intellectual and Social Transformation

The 18th century witnessed a profound intellectual and social shift known as the Enlightenment. This movement, predominantly led by French philosophers, emphasized reason and sought to explain the universe and human existence through logic and observation. It championed capitalism and significantly contributed to the rise of modern society.

Key Figures and Principles

The Enlightenment drew inspiration from earlier thinkers like John Locke, whose ideas on natural rights and the social contract laid the groundwork for a new form of government. Enlightenment philosophers advocated for a state that ensured liberty, security, and prosperity for its citizens. This representative government,... Continue reading "18th Century Enlightenment: Reason, Liberty, and Social Change" »

The Sophists

Their Focus on Practical Reality and Ethics

The Sophists directed their analysis to practical reality, particularly politics and ethics. Traveling extensively, they offered their teaching services for a fee. These professional educators aimed to help citizens achieve social success by teaching rhetoric, oratory, and eristic (the art of argumentation).

Sophists vs. Philosophers

Unlike philosophers, who sought knowledge and truth, the Sophists were more like trainers who imparted knowledge for social advancement. They viewed knowledge as a tool for social privilege, not a means to discover truth.

Two Types of Relativism

1. Theoretical Relativism: This view holds that reality depends on one's perspective. From this standpoint, reality is

Understanding the Human Person and Social Dynamics

The person is unique, unrepeatable, indefinable, and complex. Several key concepts help us understand human behavior and interactions:

• Assertiveness: Saying what you honestly think, without deception, to another person without hurting them. This includes the ability to say "no."
• Self-esteem: The positive or negative evaluation that each person holds of themself.
• Anorexia: When a person stops eating enough because they believe they are fat.
• Bulimia: Binge eating; the opposite of anorexia.
• Empathy: Putting yourself in the place of another person to understand their feelings or what is happening to them. For example, trying to understand a person who has lost a parent.

Human Nature and Social Interactions

Human