Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Unnatural Morality: The morality of the weak and resentful, affirming a higher world to which we must sacrifice in this life. It arises in opposition to natural morality, which is based on the desire for power and the value of earthly life. Unnatural morality, born of resentment, seeks to make virtue of its defects. All morality that demands sacrifice and mortification in this life to earn another in the hereafter is an unnatural morality.

Traditional morality has fallen into the following errors:

• Moral Dogmatism: Considering moral values as objective and universal, forgetting that we are the ones who believe in them.
• Anti-Vitalism: Enacting laws that go against the main trends of life. Nietzsche argues that this is the morality of resentment

Karl Marx's Core Ideas and Critique

Karl Marx's most important influences on contemporary anthropological thought come from German idealist philosophy, especially Hegel, the materialism of Feuerbach, French utopian socialism, and great capitalist economic theorists such as David Ricardo and Adam Smith.

Major Works by Karl Marx

His extensive body of work includes: The Holy Family, The German Ideology, The Communist Manifesto, and Capital.

Materialist Philosophy vs. Idealism

Against idealist philosophy, which he saw as speculative, merely theoretical, or false ideology, Marx proclaimed a materialist philosophy: one that is useful, responsible, efficient, and committed to changing the world.

Marx's thought stems from a critical attitude towards a reality... Continue reading "Karl Marx's Influences, Philosophy, and Critique" »

Descartes vs. Hume: A Philosophical Comparison

René Descartes: Rationalism

Source of Knowledge

• Reason is the source of knowledge.
• Through his innate ideas, one can arrive at any knowledge of the world.
• From certain definitions, he deduced his entire philosophy (substance, attribute, and modes).

Criterion of Truth and Research Model

• The criterion of truth is evidence.
• Experience was considered confusing, and even the proper use of ideas brings knowledge.
• Truth must be sought within the mind, following a rigorous method based on a priori order.
• Intellectual experience, through abstraction from the contents of the world (meditation), reveals strict eternal truths that God has implanted in the human soul.
• Research model based on mathematics.

Key Truths and

Metaphysics and Epistemology

Metaphysics: Exploring the Nature of Reality

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that investigates the fundamental nature of reality, including existence, being, and the world around us. It delves into the first principles of things and seeks to understand the underlying structure of reality.

Epistemology: The Study of Knowledge

Epistemology is the philosophical discipline concerned with the nature, scope, and limitations of knowledge. It explores questions such as: What is knowledge? How do we acquire knowledge? What are the sources of knowledge? And how can we justify our beliefs?

Theories of Truth

Philosophers have explored various theories of truth, including:

• Coherence Theory: Truth is determined by the logical

Plato developed a theory on the soul and its nature, presenting one of the first rational psychologies. Plato had two primary intentions in his theory of mind:

• Ethical: To demonstrate the necessity of controlling the body's instinctive tendencies and to assure a future reward for those who practice righteousness, contrasting with Sophist immorality.
• Epistemological: To justify the possibility of attaining knowledge of the Ideas.

Platonic Dualism

Plato's worldview is dualistic, divided into two realms: the world of Ideas and the world of things. In humans, the body and soul are distinct and separate.

• The Body

  The body is considered the prison of the soul, a negative burden that creates needs, diseases, and desires which hinder the search for truth.

Understanding Human Rights

Human rights represent the inherent power of every person to act or refrain from acting, embodying their fundamental freedom. They are the entitlements conferred upon individuals to enjoy life without any discrimination.

Core Characteristics of Human Rights

• Natural: They originate from human nature itself, not granted by any authority.
• Inherent and Obligatory: These rights are intrinsic to every individual, imposing an obligation on others and the state to respect them.
• Universal: They belong to all people equally, regardless of their background, location, or status.
• Inviolable: Human rights cannot be violated or taken away. Any infringement can lead to legal consequences or sanctions.

The Primacy of the Right to Life

The... Continue reading "Upholding Human Rights: Family, Society, and Personal Accountability" »

Introduction: Aristotle's Conception of Nature

Before comparing and contrasting their views, let's introduce Aristotle, a disciple of Plato, and his understanding of nature (physis). Aristotle sees nature as the internal principle of motion and change within natural beings. Unlike artificial objects, natural beings possess their own source of activity. For instance, a seed growing into a tree is a natural change, while a chair made from the tree is a product of human artistry, not nature.

To explain motion and change without falling into Parmenides's trap (the idea that change is an illusion), Aristotle uses the concepts of potentiality and actuality. The seed is potentially a tree, while the fully grown tree is the actualization of that potential.... Continue reading "Aristotle vs. Plato: Comparing and Contrasting Their Philosophical Views on Nature and Knowledge" »

David Hume's Moral Emotivism

The Science of Human Nature

David Hume, a figure of the Enlightenment, championed freedom, tolerance, and the suppression of superstition and fanaticism. As a radical British empiricist, alongside Locke and Berkeley, Hume believed in developing a science of human nature to further knowledge. This science aimed to explain human understanding through a critical review of knowledge, based on the empiricist principle that all knowledge comes from experience. Hume's analysis led him to phenomenalism and skepticism, asserting that we only know perceptions, reducing reality to mere phenomena. He questioned the possibility of knowing anything beyond perceptions with certainty, except for mathematical knowledge. This moderate... Continue reading "David Hume's Moral Emotivism: Feelings, Not Reason, Shape Morality" »

Marx's Philosophy of Praxis

Social Action and Transformation

Marx's thought differed from previous philosophies by emphasizing the social nature of humanity. Individuals find value in organizing as a social class to effect change. This contrasts with idealist philosophies like Hegel's, which focused on "Great Men" and the Spirit's movement. Marx highlighted the active role of workers in material production.

Praxis vs. Theory

Praxis, meaning "practice" or "action," traditionally belonged to ethics, contrasting with theoretical philosophy (epistemology). Marx extended praxis beyond moral values to include the objective results of human labor and its transformative impact on nature.

Transformative Power and Social Classes

Marx viewed human action... Continue reading "Marx's Philosophy of Praxis: Transforming the World" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Philosophers: Conceptual Mummies and Sensory Deception

In what appears to be lines 1-8, Nietzsche presents what he claims is an "idiotic" feature of philosophers: their attempt to create "conceptual mummies" seeking eternity. This critique often involves puns on terms like 'idiosyncratic' and 'idolaters'. Between lines 8-12, he shows how these philosophers blame the senses for errors in knowledge, asserting that the senses are "unreliable in other areas." From lines 12 to 15, the text highlights two consequences of these philosophical idiosyncrasies: the elimination of history, the senses, and the body in general. Nietzsche also critiques the "pun-theism monotone," connecting it with religion and its inherent flaws.

Nietzsche