Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Introduction

This text discusses a society where everything is geared towards living within a state. We don't have a welfare state, but rather the imperative to be free, and for citizens to be free.

Part 1

1. Leaving the Minority

This is what we have to achieve: to think for ourselves and attain moral autonomy.

2. Causes of the Minority

One cause is oneself; the fault is one's own – self-blame. Another cause is laziness and cowardice.

3. Danger of the Minority

The danger lies with the guardians (State, Church) because people are afraid to leave their tutelage. The less you know, the easier it is to control people (by instilling fear).

4. Obligation and Liberty

These must be reconciled at their midpoint so that everything goes well. This is why Kant... Continue reading "Kant's Philosophy: Freedom, Enlightenment, and the State" »

Continental Rationalism

Continental Rationalism refers to a philosophical movement developed in continental Europe. It is opposed to the Empiricist school, which developed in the British Isles with thinkers like Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.

Main Rationalist thinkers include Blaise Pascal, Baruch Spinoza, and Nicolas Malebranche.

Difficulties of Rationalism

Rationalism is a system that emphasizes reason. However, a general definition leads to the consideration of various types of rationalist philosophers, including those who deny the supernatural and do not accept revelation or mysteries.

Key Elements of Rationalism

• The importance of reason as the source of knowledge, as opposed to the senses. Senses provide information that must be interpreted by

Item 6: Subject and Object

Subject: Philosophy often refers to the subject as the entity that perceives or experiences (subject cognoscente).
Object: The object is that which is aware of the subject. It is aware of and ascertains the contents.

Ideal Objects, Real Objects, and Values

Ideal Objects: These are products of our intelligence that do not exist in reality; they depend on our thinking and our creations.
Real Objects: Objects that represent tangible things in the world.
Values: A third type of object that can be based on real or ideal concepts, but always maintains an essential relationship to humans.

The Three Properties of Experience

The sensitive experience is essential because it is through this that we relate to things that exist. Sensory... Continue reading "Understanding Subject and Object in Philosophy" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Western Civilization

Nietzsche's philosophy includes a significant critique of Western culture, denying many of the traditional cultural and philosophical foundations of Western civilizations. The characteristics of this criticism are:

• Method: Psychological analysis of genealogical form to research the development and conditions in which moral values arise.
• Diagnosis: Western culture is steeped in nihilism, leading to its own self-destruction.
• Common Enemy: Christianity.

Nihilism: A Diagnosis

Nihilism, as used by Nietzsche, criticizes any doctrine that denies the values he considers important. It has two meanings in his work:

1. Passive Nihilism: Decadence and decline of the spirit's power.
2. Active Nihilism: The growing power of

Logic and Argumentation

Aristotle and the Science of Logic

The creator of logic as a science was Aristotle.

Sophistry and Fallacies

Sophistry: False arguments

Fallacies: Look real but are falsehoods.

Steps for a Valid Argument

1. An argument needs two declarative sentences to be valid.
2. It must have two premises with a middle ground.
3. The average of the two premises must have the same meaning and extent in both.

Types of Arguments and Propositions

Aristotle identified different types of arguments and propositions:

• A: Universal, Affirmative: All human beings are rational.
• E: Universal, Negative: No talking dog.
• I: Particular, Affirmative: John is an architect.
• O: Particular, Negative: Juan does not laugh.

Conclusion Validity

The conclusion is not valid if at least... Continue reading "Logic, Arguments, and Freedom: An Exploration" »

1 Anthropological Argument

Religious Knowledge: Understanding the Human Experience

Religious knowledge delves into the complexity of the human experience. It clarifies the meaning and rationale behind human activities such as rituals, prayer, sacrifice, silence, and action. These activities constitute fundamental models of human behavior.

Historical Significance

In history, religious beliefs have had a significant impact. Understanding modern European history requires acknowledging the role of religious struggles throughout time.

Cultural Significance

Religious knowledge informs philosophical anthropology, highlighting the sacred as a universal dimension. The origins of culture are rooted in experiences and beliefs.

Intercultural Dialogue

Inter-religious... Continue reading "Religious Knowledge: A Humanistic Approach to Education" »

Critique of Pure Reason: Transcendental Dialectics

Transcendental Dialectical Reason. Pure Reason, at the beginning of the second part of the logic, states that the dialectic is the logic of illusion and delusion. Phenomena are different, but here it is transcendental illusion that occurs when reason goes beyond experience as a natural tendency. That's when reason falls into errors. We must discover and eliminate them. The field of science is limited to the experience of acting, so sensitive and understanding as knowledge sources. Reason is beset by questions that it cannot avoid, that it feels compelled to go beyond, a trend in its tendency produces unifying ideas. Similar to the sensitivity, reason comprehends sensible intuitions about how... Continue reading "Critique of Pure Reason: Transcendental Dialectics & Metaphysics" »

Ortega y Gasset himself repeatedly acknowledged the influences of Unamuno, especially regarding the cultural attitude needed to regenerate Spain, though they crossed swords in their feelings towards Europe and science.

Ortega was influenced by Nietzsche's vitalism and perspectivism, manifested in his defense of vital values, feelings, imagination, and the less rational dimensions of the person. However, while Nietzsche's vitalism could be seen as radical, Ortega did not understand life without its interconnection with reason.

Ortega found certain parallels in Husserl's phenomenology, such as intentionality in mental processes and the demand for philosophy to find a ground—a reality which is consciousness for Husserl and, for Ortega, life itself.... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset: Philosophical Influences and Legacy" »

Philosophical Perspectives on Knowledge

Descartes did not use the word itself as subjective-objective. What are the consequences of this? Scientists often view everything through the lens of objective investigation, focusing on goals and aspirations. Poets, on the other hand, embody wisdom through subjectivity.

Sentences involve an utterance and are formed by propositions. While words express concepts like fear, two sentences with different contents can convey an equally limited meaning.

A poet's expression is based on the enunciative sentence's content. It relies on the manner and content to express something limited. Conversely, we often desire more content when the expression itself is limited.

Types of Statements and Knowledge

Expressions (propositions)

Spanish Romantic Prose in the Early 19th Century

Although high-quality literary prose existed in Spain during the early 19th century, with notable exceptions like Larra, this period was crucial for the later emergence and consolidation of the realist novel. During the first decades of the 19th century, a publishing web was brewing, producing newspapers and books. This made not only the translation of novels profitable but also their original writing. Romantic prose developed late and hesitantly in Spain. The romantic prose genre itself was the historical novel, although other stories with romantic, sentimental, or horror content were also published. The serial novel significantly increased readership. It also conditioned the form and structure... Continue reading "Spanish Romantic Prose and Mariano José de Larra's Works" »