Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Understanding Key Philosophical Concepts

Intuition: Intuition is direct and immediate knowledge, without reasoning, generally considered obvious.

Skepticism: Skepticism is questioning claims that are often taken for granted.

Phenomenology: Phenomenology studies events as they appear in consciousness, focusing on the relationship between facts.

Eidetic: Eidetic relates to essence and ideas, as opposed to factual or sensible matters.

Hermeneutics: Hermeneutics is the art of interpreting texts to determine the precise meaning of words and expressed thoughts.

Subjective: Subjectivity is based on the individual's viewpoint, influenced by interests and wishes, contrasting with objectivity.

Pantonomia: Also called universalism, pantonomia is the study of... Continue reading "Understanding Key Philosophical Concepts and Their Meanings" »

Philosophical Concepts of Happiness

Epicureanism: Happiness as Pleasure

For the Epicurean, all matter is composed, and happiness is defined as achieving the maximum possible degree of pleasure. This pleasure must be the end of life that guides humanity.

According to Epicurus, happiness is the consecution of passive pleasures (freedom from suffering in body and soul, known as Ataraxia and Aponia), and not necessarily active pleasures (which we actively pursue).

Three Types of Desires

• Natural and Necessary: They satisfy organic needs and trends.
• Natural and Unnecessary: Desires leading to unnecessary consumption.
• Neither Natural nor Necessary: Desires aimed at achieving glory and fame.

The wise person should seek the satisfaction of natural and necessary... Continue reading "Defining Happiness: Epicureanism, Utility, and Political Theory" »

1. Historical and Cultural Context

Ancient Greek philosophy flourished from the 7th century BC to the 1st century AD, encompassing three distinct periods:

A. Hellenic Period

Monarchies, the dominant form of government in the Greek polis until 650 BC, were replaced by oligarchies and subsequently by tyrannies that spread throughout the Mediterranean colonies. In the 5th century BC, Athens emerged as a prominent city, adopting a democratic constitution under Pericles. This era marked a golden age for Athens. Following victory over the Persians in the Median Wars, Athens led the Delian League, and its democratic system was emulated by other cities. However, Athens' prosperity sparked jealousy in Sparta, leading to the Peloponnesian War. Sparta's... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Philosophy: From Pre-Socratics to Plato" »

Kant and the Enlightenment

Why Kant is an Enlightenment Philosopher

• Kant embodies most of the features generally outlined in the previous paragraphs on the Enlightenment, directly related to the concerns illustrated.
• His Critique of Pure Reason is one of the most significant human attempts to prove that critical reason is the sole source of all human knowledge, being the main characteristic of man and his progress.
• Kant's philosophy is instantly recognizable in the priority given to reason as the supreme power and the only court that can dictate the truth. His judgments are subject to themes of religion, progress, society, morality, man, freedom, law, and, above all, one's duty to reason as the sole judge of all.
• Kant was consistent with the primacy

The Role of Myth in Ancient Greece

Mythology attempts to provide a comprehensive explanation of the universe, often based on the deification of natural phenomena, with explanations revealed by supernatural beings. Alternatively, it can be defined as a primitive explanation relying solely on imagination to find answers.

In ancient Greece, early poets like Homer and Hesiod composed myths. These poets were visionaries connected with nature, not philosophers. Their narratives reflected humanity's effort to formulate coherent answers to questions about reality, serving to organize societal conduct. Oral poetry, with its voice, sounds, and tone, expressed emotion and was inherently mythic or mythographical.

A key characteristic of mythic narratives... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Thought: From Myth to Rational Inquiry" »

Nominal Group Technique (NGT)

The Nominal Group Technique (NGT) facilitates decision-making, objective setting, and alternative generation. This structured brainstorming method yields focused results, proving valuable when aiming for common conclusions or proposals. NGT helps overcome obstacles in achieving unanimous agreements and clearly defining collective objectives. Ideally used with groups of up to twelve people, NGT sessions combine individual reflection with group interaction.

NGT works best with homogenous groups striving for consensus on a specific action plan. If conflicting viewpoints arise, separate nominal groups representing different perspectives can be formed. A typical NGT session follows these steps:

1. The leader introduces

Nietzsche's Philosophy of Life

A vital aspect of Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy is that life is irreducible to any category outside of itself. For Nietzsche, life has no foundation beyond its own existence and possesses value in and of itself.

Critique of Western Culture

Nietzsche places the onset of the crisis of the Greek spirit in the 5th century BC. He believed the ancient Greeks originally accepted the two basic dimensions of reality, expressing them through the cults of Apollo (reason, order) and Dionysus (passion, chaos). According to Nietzsche, Western decadence destroyed this perfect union between reason and life. This decline began with:

• Socrates: Who gave precedence to reason over instinct.
• Plato: Who followed by inventing the "real

Basic Propositions of Classical Mechanics (Newton)

• It is possible and desirable to reduce all natural phenomena to the interaction of material particles possessing objective reality.
• Only mathematically quantifiable qualities: extension and motion.
• It is sufficient to describe mathematically the laws governing movements: scientific explanation only needs to express the mathematical relationship between two covariant variables.
• Size and extent in space are objective properties of bodies.
• Mass is a property of all bodies.
• All movements in nature have a cause. In physical reality, there is no freedom. Everything is determined.
• Primary qualities of objects (shape, size, motion, and position) are independent of the observer.

The Problem of Human Freedom

St. Thomas Aquinas' Political Philosophy

Differences with Aristotle

St. Thomas Aquinas' political philosophy is based on Aristotle's. However, for St. Thomas, man's only natural order is God. Some key differences exist between them:

First Difference: The Perfect Community

For Aristotle, the state is the perfect community, satisfying all human needs and providing happiness. In St. Thomas' time, the concept of the city differed from Aristotle's. St. Thomas distinguished two types of communities:

• The house or family
• The city and the kingdom, understood as a grouping of cities, which St. Thomas considered the perfect community.

Second Difference: The Concept of Peace

Aristotle did not consider peace a necessary condition of a perfect community. He believed... Continue reading "St. Thomas Aquinas' Political Philosophy: A Comparison with Aristotle" »

Aristotle's Ethics: The Pursuit of Happiness

Aristotle's ethics centers on the pursuit of happiness as its ultimate purpose. While some equate happiness with pleasure or wealth, Aristotle believed that the wise person finds it in living a life of intellectual virtue. This doesn't mean rejecting sensory pleasures or material goods, but rather enjoying them in moderation, ensuring they don't hinder the contemplation of truth.

The Concept of Virtue

Aristotle developed the concept of virtue as a balance. Human actions should be governed by prudence and reason. He distinguished between two types of virtue:

• Dianoetic virtues: Related to the exercise of intelligence.
• Ethical virtues: Related to sensitivity and affection.

All virtues are habits acquired... Continue reading "Aristotle's Ethics: Pursuit of Happiness and Virtue" »