Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Key Philosophical Concepts and Thinkers

Orphic Mysteries

The Orphic mysteries have specific beliefs influenced by Greek philosophy. Named after Orpheus, they introduced a new perspective into Greek civilization regarding beliefs and the interpretation of human existence. They proclaim the immortality of the soul and the concept of the human soul-body.

Orphic beliefs include:

• A core (blame) falls upon a body.
• An immortal soul resides in the body until it is freed from its guilt.
• Only the Orphic can end the cycle of reincarnation.
• For the purified, there will be a prize.

Myth vs. Logos

Myth: A collection of traditional stories and teachings of poets (especially Homer). Myths attempt to explain reality in its entirety. Everything happens arbitrarily by... Continue reading "Ideas and Philosophers in History" »

Perception

First-level process. Perception is the result of the combination of two cognitive processes: sensation and perception. The human mind collects information from the environment through the sense organs and gives it significance; its perception is the result (the perceived form or object is present in our minds).

• Characteristics: Requires the presence of a stimulus.
• From the data of the senses, perception occurs in a unique, practical space and time. It is direct, sharp, and exact, not amending its qualities.

Representation

Second-level process, involving memory and imagination. Memory allows us to retain information and replay it without the stimulus.

• Image result: Does not require a stimulus.
• Made from unique past perceptions and is concrete.

Presence of Law and Sense of Definition

Preliminary Law

The philosophy of studying the theory of the Law of Justice, Human Rights (HR), and the Science of Law does not form part of the Philosophy of Law. It uses scientific and empirical methods (philosophy), synthetic methods (general concepts), and analytical methods (interpreting legal norms). The presence of HR in human life means continuous contact with the law. The law shares the legal significance of common actions, such as buying a newspaper or having a drink. Regarding their nature, some theorists narrow the scope of the legal set of rules dictated by the legislature and the executive branch. Others identify it with the decisions that judges make in dispute resolutions.

Definition of Law

Hellenes and the Foundation of Greek Culture

1.2 The Hellenes formed part of Greek culture through the great epics of Homer: the *Odyssey* and the *Iliad*. They learned the language and customs. Those who did not follow this example were considered barbarians. They created a civilization based on beauty, dialogue, and reason, and were the first to use the term "philosophy." In ancient Greece, a new form of government emerged: democracy (although society was based on the work of slaves, and women were not socially recognized). The Greeks created theaters, sports, humanized springs, democracy, and philosophy.

The first witness to use the word "philosophy" was Pythagoras. When he was apparently asked for his profession, he replied that he was a... Continue reading "Ancient Greece: Birthplace of Democracy & Philosophy" »

Descartes: The Method

Descartes' problem was the worry about the merits of the many mistakes regarding knowledge. He recognized that over the centuries, many mistakes had been presented and defended as unquestionable truths. If human reason was a valuable and effective tool, why could science and the philosophy of science not advance? Descartes thought that a method had enabled him to find safety in knowledge, but philosophy lacked a proper method. The mathematical method introduced here gives human reason a definitive criterion of truth. According to Galileo, mathematics is seen as a rational science that brings order to the chaos of data. Descartes was convinced that, just as geometers could make things easier from the more complex without... Continue reading "Descartes' Method: Doubt, the Self, God, and the World" »

The need to understand the world and its meaning is a fundamental human characteristic. Throughout history, philosophers and cultures have constructed systems and models to explain reality, seeking a rational understanding of what is. A key distinction lies between appearance and reality. Our ways of knowing are limited, and the data we receive is processed by our brains. For many philosophers, reality is hidden behind appearances; what we perceive is merely a representation of what is truly real.

We must consider the complexity of the world, which includes not only the physical and objective but also the psychic and even the spiritual. Matter is what things are made of, perceived by the senses, and remains despite changes. Materialistic theories... Continue reading "Understanding Reality: Essence, Existence, and Truth" »

Concept of Being

Being is the most abstract and general concept, designating the existence of something. Ontology, a branch of philosophy, studies being in its generality and abstraction, dealing not only with being itself but also with all entities.

The Body

The body is that which exists, what we can understand and know. A classification of being includes ideal objects and real objects.

Real and Ideal Objects

Real objects are tangible things like the moon or a tree. Ideal objects are abstract concepts like numbers, triangles, or circles.

Gnoseology (Epistemology)

Gnoseology studies the acts of knowledge, exploring the sources and methods of acquiring knowledge.

Idealist and Materialist Views

Idealists believe knowledge is primary and gives rise to... Continue reading "Exploration of Being, Knowledge, and Existence in Philosophy" »

Enlightenment: *Sapere Aude*

The Core Idea of Enlightenment

The central theme of the Enlightenment is encapsulated in the Latin phrase, *Sapere Aude*! (Dare to use your own intelligence!). Enlightenment signifies humanity's departure from self-imposed immaturity. It is the liberation of one's reason from external control and the courage to think independently.

Obstacles to Enlightenment

Several factors hinder the path to Enlightenment:

• Laziness and Cowardice: These traits prevent individuals from embracing intellectual freedom and relying on their own judgment.
• The Comfort of Guidance: While nature has endowed us with the capacity for reason, many remain in a state of immaturity due to laziness and cowardice. It is more comfortable and less risky

Instructional Texts: A Comprehensive Overview

Instructional texts describe, step-by-step, directions to perform a necessary action. These texts are used for giving orders, rules, warnings, or advice.

Structure of Instructional Texts

The structure of an instructional text usually consists of two parts: the objective and the instructions.

Language Characteristics

The language of an instructional text features clear and precise vocabulary, use of the imperative mood, and a prevalence of simple sentences.

Pronouns: A Detailed Explanation

Pronouns are words that replace a noun. Personal pronouns serve to indicate the grammatical persons involved in communication. Forms of demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns, indefinite pronouns, numeral pronouns,

Naples 1224-1274

The 13th century in Western thought was largely shaped by Platonic philosophy. Existing authors contributed to this influence, compounded by a lack of access to the complete works of Aristotle; primarily, only his logical treatises were known. The 13th century marked the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy. The arrival of Aristotelianism in Europe created a shock and upheaval. Despite resistance to this new wave of thought, Thomas Aquinas sought to assimilate it.

Aristotelianism reached the West following the decline of the Roman Empire and the loss of many classical texts. It was retrieved through the expanding Arab Empire. Arab scholars collected and translated Aristotle's works into Arabic, often adding their own commentaries... Continue reading "The Apogee of Saint Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism" »