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John Stuart Mill's Utilitarianism: Chapter III Summary

The Ultimate Sanction of the Principle of Utility

To those who question the binding force of the Principle of Utility (or the Principle of General Happiness) as a determinant of our actions, Mill responds that whenever we adopt an ethical criterion, we inevitably ask: Why must I act in a certain way?

The answer lies in the forces that condition our actions, which are categorized as either external or internal. (Mill notes that only with deeply ingrained moral education and public opinion would the foundations of morality not be jeopardized.)

The Obligation to Promote General Happiness

In the case of Utilitarianism, we wonder: Why am I obligated to promote the general happiness? Mill argues that... Continue reading "John Stuart Mill: Internal and External Sanctions of Utilitarianism" »

For Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle's theory, the ultimate human goal is happiness, achieved through the realization of human potential. Thus, to determine moral standards of behavior, we humans rely on knowledge and reason.

Natural Moral Law: Aquinas's View

God created the world and its development, imposing a set of laws known as the eternal law. Natural law is a part of this eternal law and refers to human behavior that is dictated by reason. The rules governing human conduct, according to natural law, are:

• As a substance, humans tend to preserve their existence.
• As an animal, humans tend to reproduce.
• As a rational being, humans tend to know the truth and live in society.

Achieving these tendencies is considered the natural good.

Natural

"Among the things / natural inclinations."

In the text, Aquinas makes a parallel between speculative reason and practical reason to try to show that the precept of natural law is unique. Like the first thing to be understood is the entity, the second captures "good." And like in that there is a first principle of any demonstration, obvious and provable, the principle of contradiction, in this there is a first principle: "Good is what all people crave," which is derived from the first moral precept of natural law: "We must act and pursue good and avoid evil." This bill, only natural, immutable, indelible, and universally valid, is that which serves as a criterion for evaluating all moral actions of man, all the ethical, "All other precepts of... Continue reading "Aquinas on Natural Law: Principles and Inclinations" »

Transcendental Idealism

Transcendental idealism is an epistemological and metaphysical conception developed by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the eighteenth century.

Briefly stated, transcendental idealism posits that all knowledge requires two elements: first, something external to the subject (given, or material principle), i.e., an object of knowledge. Second, something internal to the subject (the job or formal principle), which is the individual who knows. Kant claims that the conditions of all knowledge are set not by the object known, but by the knowing subject. The knowing subject introduces ways of understanding that are not pre-existing in reality. For Kant, knowledge is born from the union of sensibility with understanding;... Continue reading "Kant, Marx, and Hegel: A Comparison of Philosophical Ideologies" »

Kant's Concept of Duty and Free Will

According to Kant, our choices are free only if they are determined by duty. The human will is autonomous when it acts according to its own dictates, irrespective of other considerations. These actions are undertaken out of a sense of duty.

Rawls's Theory of the Original Position

Rawls's concept of the original position imagines a group of individuals behind a "veil of ignorance." They are unaware of their gender, wealth, race, religion, or any other characteristic that could lead to biased interests. This total ignorance defines the original position.

Justice According to Plato and Rawls

Plato views justice as the state where each part of the soul fulfills its specific virtues. The rational part of the soul... Continue reading "Kant, Rawls, Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes: Philosophy Insights" »

Thought and Language: Speaking as We Think

We maintain that you first think and then externalize the inner thoughts through language, i.e., that there is a thought prior to language which is then channeled linguistically.

Thinking as We Talk: Language Dependence

This affirms the dependence of our thinking on our language.

Thought to Speech: Flawed Yet Exuberant?

Flawed (or Deficient) -> In expressing our thoughts orally, nuances are lost.

Exuberant (or Rich) -> Because we can realize new nuances.

Beyond Reflection: Other Language Functions

With language, we reflect ourselves, communicate with others, and also try to change the thinking and behavior of others.

Origin of Jargon and Slang

Each society has its language, i.e., a specific way of using... Continue reading "Language, Thought, and Society: Key Questions" »

**Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas**

**Reality and God**

Aquinas affirms that God is the creator of the universe and, therefore, is necessary, whereas created beings are contingent. In contingent beings, there is a distinction between essence and existence, as their essence does not imply their existence, but God's does. Essence is the power of being, and existence is the act of being. In turn, Aquinas provides a hierarchical organization according to the potential of their essence and likeness to God. The God of St. Thomas is a creator God who knows and loves his creatures. Aquinas argues that reason is the demonstration of the existence of God. In turn, he defends that God is a necessary being. He distinguishes two types of demonstration: *a priori*... Continue reading "St. Thomas Aquinas: Philosophy on Reality, Faith, and Ethics" »

Nietzsche's Revaluation of Values

Critique of Existing Morality

Nietzsche argued that humanity is often despicable and corrupted, primarily due to its false table of values or axiological hierarchy. He proposed the following principles:

• The Transmutation of All Values: We must replace current values with others that elevate us beyond spiritual poverty.
• Critique of Metaphysical Notions: Current values are often based on non-existent entities (e.g., God, truth). Their absence offers no guidance for humanity, leading to hypocrisy.
• The Will to Power: Our most immediate reality is our desire for power. Our actions are governed by instincts, with the will to power as the primary drive.
• Affirmation of Life: Life itself is inherently good and exuberant.

Political Power and Legitimacy

Political power, as understood by powerful politicians, involves the authority responsible for enforcing laws. We obey the law out of fear of punishment. Throughout history, there have been various understandings of political power:

• Absolute: Grants political authority all powers (legislative, executive, judicial).
• Democracy: Power is distributed among various institutions (e.g., the executive branch runs the government; the legislature makes laws; the judiciary judges). In a democracy, the law takes precedence over the ruling power.

Legitimacy: The basis upon which political power rests. It concerns:

• The manner in which the person possessing authority acquired it.
• The exercise of that power, guided by the laws dictated

Epicureanism: Ethical Hedonism

Epicureanism states that the wise person seeks self-sufficiency. Happiness is achieved through pleasure—the satisfaction of natural desires—considered the primary natural asset, the beginning and end of a happy life. The goal is to achieve pleasure and avoid pain.

The wise person is cautious and moderately happy, not carried away by debauchery and excess. The wise person estimates activities that yield more pleasure and less pain, organizing their life by calculating which pleasures are more intense and lasting, with fewer painful consequences. The wise person intelligently distributes pleasures throughout their life. Morality, in this view, is the art of living happily.

Utilitarianism: The Principle of Utility

Utility... Continue reading "Pleasure, Utility, and Duty: Foundations of Ethical Thought" »