Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Hobbes: The State of Nature

The state of nature, according to Hobbes, is the condition of humanity before the establishment of society. In this state, individuals exist in complete freedom and equality, unbound by laws or authority. Consequently, everyone possesses a right to everything, which effectively equates to possessing nothing, as there is no mechanism to enforce or protect individual rights. Driven by selfishness and a lack of restraint, individuals become a threat to one another ("homo homini lupus"), transforming the state of nature into a perpetual state of war and widespread insecurity. This condition impedes progress in all areas, including agriculture, industry, knowledge, and culture.

However, the instinct for self-preservation,... Continue reading "Hobbes vs. Locke: Contrasting Views on the State of Nature" »

The Fundamental Problems of Philosophy

Since the inception of philosophical writings, a recurring concern has been to determine the principles that make reality intelligible, and to question whether reality is ultimately reducible to something fundamental.

Metaphysical Perspectives on Reality

Spiritualism

Spiritualist metaphysics claims that the ultimate nature of reality is spiritual. This assertion is primarily motivated by the defense of the thesis that spiritual phenomena are irreducible to material explanations based on mechanical or organic laws governing natural events.

Sensationalism

A peculiar form of spiritualism is sensationalism, which reduces reality to so-called "sense data." It posits that perceptions are psychic reality and do not... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations: Core Problems and Metaphysics" »

Hobbes and Rousseau: A Comparison

Hobbes: Human Nature and the Philosophy of Power

According to Hobbes, human nature is composed of two elements that determine political problems:

1. Natural Equality of Men: All men are created equal.
2. Scarcity of Goods: Men crave goods due to their needs, leading to competition.

Language is crucial for civil society and the state. Without language, there would be no state, civil society, peace agreements, or distinction from animals. Language makes man a citizen, highlighting his rationality. Reason remains constant in its purposes and means.

Analysis of Power

Hobbes opposes the optimistic view of natural law theorists who believe in man's natural inclination to sociability. The first law of nature leads to conflict... Continue reading "Hobbes and Rousseau: Natural Law, Sovereignty, and the Social Contract" »

Monism and Dualism

Monism claims that there is no composition in human reality, so that death becomes the absolute limit of existence. Dualism argues that human beings are constituted by two kinds of reality: a material body and a spiritual body, the soul. These theories often view death as the separation of the components. In these cases, death is like a transit. There are a variety of conceptions about what happens to the soul after its separation from the body: from the possibility of achieving ultimate happiness to the belief in the need to purify the soul, incarnated successively in several bodies.

The Question of Evil

The term "theodicy" was introduced by Leibniz. From the etymological point of view, it refers both to the holiness of God... Continue reading "Monism, Dualism, Evil, and Science: Philosophical Perspectives" »

Cultural Evolution

From Biological to Cultural

Biological evolution continues in cultural evolution. "Culture" encompasses all human inventions transmitted through learning: language, beliefs, and more. Cultural evolution has advanced at a pace Darwinian processes cannot match. Unlike our biological history, cultural evolution is Lamarckian in nature.

The Process of Humanization

Humanization refers to all the changes in human life since the emergence of Homo sapiens, summarized as "culture." Humans are the only creatures capable of education. Education encompasses care during infancy, the discipline that shapes humanity, and finally, the transmission of culture. This creates a three-way relationship: child, pupil, and student.

Discipline distinguishes... Continue reading "Cultural Evolution and Humanization: A Journey Through Human Development" »

Narrative Time

The action takes place during the years 1939-1940, but there are some temporary setbacks (flashbacks) based on Andrea's memories of other stays in Barcelona, where she would spend summers at her grandparents' house on Aribau street. The narrator is situated in the recent past relative to the facts, in 1944. The period between February and September is when the novel was written.

The Postwar Novel

In the 1940s, the bleak post-war climate favored the culmination of literature committed to social problems. In Spain, there were two schools that had a significant impact on all literary genres: existentialism and neorealism. Existentialism questioned the meaning of human existence, and neorealism questioned social reality. Between 1940... Continue reading "Carmen Laforet's Nada: A Literary Analysis" »

Hume's Criticism of Causality

Criticism of the principle of causality is the cornerstone of Hume's philosophy. Rationalists considered causality a principle known clearly through reason. Descartes stated that the principle of causality allowed him to assert God's existence as the cause of the idea of infinity in his mind. Locke also used the principle of causality to accept the existence of external reality as the cause of our sensations and God's existence as the cause of the world and our own existence.

According to Hume, all arguments about matters of fact are based on cause and effect. Only through this relationship can we go beyond the evidence of our memory and senses. Furthermore, our notion of an ordered world would be impossible if we... Continue reading "Hume's Critique: Deconstructing Causality in Philosophy" »

Perspectives on Cultural Encounters

When meeting people from other cultures, even if we acknowledge that no one is inherently strange, differences can sometimes feel pronounced. Encounters with individuals outside our own social group can lead to certain behaviors:

• Ethnocentrism: An individual exhibiting this behavior elevates their own societal values, believing them to be unique and superior to those of other societies.
• Exoticism: This behavior involves idealizing another culture while devaluing one's own. It focuses on the perceived 'otherness' without necessarily valuing the culture authentically, often accompanied by self-criticism of one's own culture.
• Relativism: This perspective holds that all customs and values are equally valid within

Nietzsche's Ethics: A Foundation of Values

Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy presents a radical re-evaluation of traditional morality, identifying two fundamental types of valuation of life:

Master Morality

• Embodies a profoundly positive attitude towards life.
• Characterizes the active, creative individual who lives independently.
• Finds happiness within themselves, embracing life as it is and living with intensity.

Slave Morality

• Stems from a negative attitude towards life, viewing it as tragic and finite.
• Gives rise to a passive, weak, and cowardly disposition.
• Converts its own shortcomings into virtues, presenting them as achievements of freedom.

In this 'game' of defending certain values, the slave casts the master as 'evil' and themselves as 'good.... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Ethics: Master, Slave, and the Übermensch" »