Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Understanding Knowledge

Knowledge is a mental representation of the interaction between a subject and an object, from which a cognitive image emerges. The three main problems of knowledge are:

1. The Possibility of Knowledge

Problem: Is knowledge possible? What is its value?

Responses and Representations:

• Dogmatism: A naive stance that believes knowledge is possible and does not question it. Examples include pre-Socratics, Plato, and Aristotle.
• Skepticism: Denies that humans can have true and certain knowledge, in contrast to dogmatism. Example: Pyrrho of Elis.
• Relativism: Denies the possibility of knowing universal valid truths, asserting that the validity of knowledge is unlimited. Examples include the Sophists.
• Criticism: Emphasizes the critical

Plato's Theory of Ideas

Plato sought to understand the true nature of reality by identifying immutable principles, which he termed "Ideas." He observed that while the world is full of good things, we can only recognize them through the pre-existing concept of "Goodness" itself. Plato conceived of these Ideas as fundamental realities from which tangible things derive their essence. When we perceive something as beautiful, it is because it participates in the Idea of Beauty. Its beauty fades when it no longer embodies this Idea, but the Idea itself remains, allowing for the reappearance of beautiful things. These Ideas reside in the World of Ideas.

The World of Ideas and the Sensible World

Plato argued for the necessity of an ideal world containing... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Ideas: Unveiling the Intelligible World" »

1.1 Human Nature

The set of characteristics and properties shared by all humans. These traits identify us as a species, distinguishing us from the rest. It is our biological heritage.

1.2 Culture

A group of inventions produced by human intelligence, including language, clothing, and cuisine. It is our heritage. Human beings are a combination of nature and culture in which we live.

1.3 Ethics

A set of reflections on the goodness or badness of our conduct, on human behavior, and how behavior should be.

2.1 Human Intelligence

The ability to manage behavior effectively, using information to solve new problems. This includes:

• Conduct and behavior: Controlling how we care, learn, or desire.
• Helping us to choose the right goal and act effectively.

It raises... Continue reading "Understanding Human Nature, Culture, and Ethics" »

The Tree of Knowledge: A Story of Frustration

The Tree of Knowledge is the story of a frustration. Andrés Hurtado, its protagonist, seeks an explanation for an absurd and unjust reality. It is not mere intellectual curiosity that drives him, but the need to obtain some "practical truths" with which to conduct himself in life.

Reason vs. Life: An Irreconcilable Struggle

The attempt fails because the approach is too radical; reason and life are seen as irreconcilable principles. In the struggle between the tree of knowledge and the tree of life, Andrés will give in to the latter, which shows itself to be strong and indomitable. Life, as a "blind force" that is opposed to reason, is a "turbulent flow" which carries the individual with its impetus,... Continue reading "Pío Baroja's The Tree of Knowledge: A Critical Analysis" »

Item 1: What is Man?

Biologically, man is an animal by nature. Culturally, man is a social being. Animals and humans—man is able to create and transmit culture through human language.

Intelligence

Being aware of reality is the ability to direct our behavior to deal successfully with new situations and relate to the environment. So-called emotional intelligence is the ability to deal with our moods, feelings, and emotions and relate positively and effectively with things and with others. Since we live not alone but in partnership, in addition to the intelligence that is proper to each person, we can distinguish social intelligence.

Good Conditions for Human Development

• Dignity implies having minimal material and social conditions that allow the

Defining Reality: Material and Spiritual

Philosophers distinguish two types of reality: material and immaterial (or spiritual). The relationships proposed between them include:

1. Exclusion: The existence of one kind excludes the existence of the other (characteristic of metaphysical materialism or spiritualism).
2. Coexistence: They may interact, but interaction is considered very difficult as they are radically different.
3. Basis: One reality serves as the foundation or basis upon which the other is built.

Plato and Aristotle: Foundational Views

It is sometimes argued that Plato resolved fundamental philosophical issues, with later philosophers primarily commenting, nuancing, and explaining his work. Aristotle (often associated with a more material perspective)... Continue reading "Matter vs. Spirit: Philosophical Perspectives on Reality" »

Hobbes: Justification of the Absolute State

Hobbes's political and moral philosophy presents the state of nature as pre-moral. Morality is generated by the social contract, serving as a tool to ensure the security and peace necessary for each individual's complete freedom. Absolute political power and morality are at the service of the individual. Political power lacks limits, while morality is minimal. The state is an institution separate from the individual, a rationally accepted means of achieving security and peace. The state, however, absorbs the individual.

To achieve security and overcome the dangers of the state of nature, individuals cede their rights to a third party, a sovereign. The sovereign state emerges as the unique source of... Continue reading "Hobbes and Spinoza: Political Philosophy Compared" »

Aristotle's Four Causes

Because it's the beginning that proceeds an individual being described by four causes:

• Material cause: It is the substratum of which things are made.
• Formal cause: It is the shape and operation of a quality.
• Efficient cause: It is the maker of the instrument and the process by which there is one thing.
• Final cause: The purpose of a thing.

It's not intended to be exclusive of artificial things produced by man. This attribution of a purpose to everything that occurs in nature is called teleologism. Aristotle also says that talks aimed at productive knowledge and practical knowledge have a purpose outside themselves.

Happiness and the Supreme Good

In his Ethics, Aristotle says that the good is the purpose of our action on our practice,... Continue reading "Aristotle's Four Causes, Ethics, and the Social Being" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Western Philosophy: From Ancient Greece to Modernity

For both Parmenides and Plato, Nietzsche betrays the spirit of Greek philosophy, i.e., the investigation of nature initiated by Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, based on observation and experimentation.

Parmenides and the Rejection of Sensory Experience

On the one hand, Parmenides created a new philosophy, logic, based on being as a supreme principle and deductive method. For Nietzsche, this is pure speculation without taking into account experience. Parmenides affirms and denies that the senses provide real knowledge as it relates to the world of appearances made by changing things on which you cannot have true, exact knowledge. True knowledge can only be achieved... Continue reading "Nietzsche and the Evolution of Philosophical Thought" »

Nouns

Nouns are words for things, animals, people, feelings, concepts, etc. In nouns, the gender morpheme does not reflect sound but is included in the lexeme of the word. The noun usually appears in concordance with the article or adjectives. In some cases, sex cannot be differentiated by grammatical gender; these are called epicene gendered nouns. In nouns referring to people and many animals, the masculine corresponds to the male and the feminine to the female sex, which employs the terminations -o, -a, -isa, -ina.

Classifying Common Nouns

• Common: Designate classes of things (tomato, country).
• Proper: Designate individuals (including names).
• Concrete: Designate things perceptible by the senses (table, dog).
• Abstract: Refer to things that are not