Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Characteristics of a Citizen

What characterizes a person belonging to a political society:

• Possessing fundamental rights.
• Assuming obligations and responsibilities.
• Maintaining an adequate relationship with the environment.

The citizen is free. Citizenship is understood in a universal way: it involves all its members.

Citizenship and Democracy

The concept of citizenship has developed alongside the fight for democracy. Democracy and Citizenship are closely linked. Democratic societies, whose objective is the general interest, must equip themselves with institutions and citizens who cooperate in achieving good governance.

In all societies, their members must take responsibility and help build a just society. The construction of a state is the responsibility... Continue reading "Understanding Citizenship and Democracy" »

Civic and Moral Ethics: Core Principles

Human Responsibility and Autonomy

Human beings are responsible for their freedom and actions. These are the requisites for the starting point of our civic and secular ethics, where the person is an end in itself and not merely an instrument. Their autonomy has, as moral constituent notes, dignity and liberty. Civic ethics is based on human rights, serving as a starting point for agreement on socially shared values for coexistence.

Kant's Categorical Imperative

To establish a discourse on ethics is to understand what happens to us, and thus we must always keep in mind the second formulation of Kant's categorical imperative: "Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person

Marvin Harris: Philosophical Implications of Technology

For Marvin Harris, technology has not necessarily brought progress for the individual, but it has had a beneficial effect on society. Harris identifies three stages in technological development:

• Hunter-gatherer societies
• Agrarian societies based on domesticated plants and animals
• Industrial societies

Each technological advancement impacts the use of leisure time. A hunter-gatherer needs approximately 3 hours a day to obtain food. During the Neolithic period, a farmer spent about 6 hours a day cultivating cereal or rice. In the 19th century, workers labored between 12 and 14 hours for minimal wages. Thus, technology may lead to a reduction of free time for individuals, but it has a beneficial... Continue reading "Marvin Harris: Technology, Society, and Alienation" »

Aristotle's Conception of Man: Body, Soul, and Rationality

For Aristotle, man is a composite of body and soul. The body is identified with matter and potentiality, while the soul (the life principle) is identified with form and actuality. The union between soul and body is substantial, forming a synolon. The human soul, primarily identified with rational knowledge, also encompasses vegetative and sensitive functions.

Man as a Political Animal and the Polis

Aristotle posits that man develops fully within the city (polis), as it is the environment where he achieves moral development and flourishes. Hence, he famously defines man as a political animal (zoon politikon), emphasizing that morality is intrinsically linked to the political sphere. Man... Continue reading "Aristotle's Political Philosophy: Man, Polis, and Virtue" »

René Descartes' Quest for Certain Knowledge

René Descartes sought certain knowledge, knowledge placed beyond reasonable doubt, guided by the rigorous procedure of mathematics.

The Cartesian Method: Four Rules

Just as in mathematics, Descartes required a guaranteed foundation from which to deduce the rest of the philosophical system. This foundation is reached by following four methodological rules:

1. Rule of Evidence (Clarity and Distinctness): Accept nothing as true unless it is presented to the mind so clearly and distinctly that there is no room for doubt.
2. Rule of Analysis: A complex problem must be divided into its simplest, most manageable parts.
3. Rule of Synthesis: Once broken down and analyzed, the parts must be reassembled systematically,

Rousseau's Political Philosophy

Rousseau's philosophy did not differentiate classes, believing all people shared the same fundamental needs and desires. He argued that when citizens were represented not as they truly are, but as modest and humble subjects, they became easier to control, leading to tyranny. He noted that the advancement of the sciences and arts also played a significant role in shaping societal change.

The State of Nature and Human Freedom

A man in his natural state is a thinker. Rousseau's contractarian view contrasts with thinkers like Locke and Hobbes, who believed societies formed a pact by accepting the rules of socio-political institutions.

In nature, man is simple; his only concern is survival and meeting basic needs, such... Continue reading "Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Man, Nature, and the Social Contract" »

Consciousness and Human Existence

Consciousness is relational. It implies the conscious human being, always open to reality. Reflexive consciousness is at all times self-aware. This awareness recognizes us as finite beings ('our days are numbered') and fosters intimacy. The human way of acting has two dimensions:

• First dimension: Humans are freed from the tyranny of stimuli and can decide their behavior.
• Second dimension: We determine our behavior because we have enjoyed the power of actualizing some of the possibilities we have at our disposal.

Key Factors in Human Evolution

• Standing: Walking upright on two legs implies a system that moves us away from solar radiation and allows for high endurance. Aristotle called it the "instrument of instruments.

Understanding Metaphysics

The word "metaphysics" was coined in the 1st century BC to refer to a book in Aristotle's works that followed physics and dealt with the first principles of all sciences. It came to be used for knowledge that falls outside the scope of the positive sciences, encompassing philosophical knowledge.

Metaphysics explores concepts like truth, knowledge, the soul, God, and the good. The distinction between the forces of nature and philosophy lies not only in their subjects of study but also in the degree of verification involved:

Science precisely defines its object of study, continuously refines its testing procedures, and expresses findings in precise language. The strength of scientific evidence is such that it typically... Continue reading "Understanding Metaphysics: Truth, Knowledge, and Being" »

Aristotle's Political Philosophy: The Ideal Constitution

The Role of the Citizen and the State

Citizens partner to live virtuously within their community. The state's role is to create conditions conducive to this good life. Integrating good and righteous citizens, the state aims to foster a moral life and common law based on participation and decision-making.

From Village to Polis

Domestic communities address basic human needs. However, a village alone is insufficient. It must be part of a larger unit (the Polis) to achieve its full potential.

Aristotle's Study of Governments

Aristotle studied various government types, analyzing around 150 constitutions from different cities. He classified them based on the number of rulers:

• Monarchy: Rule by one
• Aristocracy:

Freedom as Autonomy

Freedom is autonomy:

1. Freedom of Choice

Our will is determined by our previous way of being, not arbitrary. Indifference to two equally attractive things is not enough, because then the choices would be irrational and arbitrary. Deliberation after the selection is a good reason. Those who believe in economic rationality think that humans always choose to minimize costs and maximize profits.

2. The Concept of Autonomy

Human beings can self-select our goals. Kant said that freedom is the moral law, or *the* law. There are two approaches:

• Natural-law: People view events from outside of their will.
• Human Will View: We are creating the law of freedom, as rational beings. Thanks to them, we organize our way of life and human coexistence.