Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Durkheim: Law, Collective Representations, and Solidarity

Émile Durkheim, marked by the importance of community, morals, and the law, is considered one of the "fathers" of sociology because of his effort to establish sociology as a discipline distinct from philosophy and psychology. He had two main themes: the priority of the social over the individual and the idea that sociology should be studied as a science.

His argument was that social facts are the social norms and values that are external and coercive over the individual; therefore, they are susceptible to being studied. For him, society is external to us and coercive. One of the main aspects of his work is the link between individuals and society through social solidarity. He does not... Continue reading "Durkheim: Law, Social Solidarity, and Collective Consciousness" »

The Ultimate Vocabulary Builder

From Pontificate to Preposterous

Pontificate - to speak pompously or dogmatically

Porous - filled with many tiny holes; permeable; absorbent

Posterity - future generations; descendants; heirs

Posthumous - occurring after one's death; published after the death of the author

Posture - to act or speak artificially or affectedly

Prattle - to chatter on and on; to babble childishly

Precarious - dangerously insecure or unsteady

Precocious - unusually mature; uncommonly gifted

Predecessor - someone or something that precedes in time

Predicament - a dangerous or unpleasant situation; a dilemma

Predispose - to make susceptible; to put in a frame of mind for; to incline toward

Predominant - most important; dominant; having power over... Continue reading "The Ultimate Vocabulary Builder: From Pontificate to Preposterous" »

JUVENILE OFFENDER (13-14-15)

MARK-AW-ABRAMS

M = MURDER 2ND

• Intentional/Depraved 13-14-15
• Felony Murder 14-15 sometimes

A = ARSON 1ST or 2ND

R = ROBBERY 1ST, or ROBBERY 2ND, subd. 2(a) or 2(b)

K = KIDNAPPING 1ST

A = ASSAULT 1ST, subds. 1 or 2

W = WEAPONS (school grounds)

A = ATTEMPT

• MURDER 2ND
• KIDNAPPING 1ST

B = BURGLARY 1ST, OR BURGLARY 2ND, subd. 1

R = RAPE 1ST, subds. 1 or 2

A = AGGRAVATED SEXUAL ABUSE (130.70)

M = MANSLAUGHTER 1ST

S = CRIMINAL SEXUAL ACT 1ST, subds. 1 or 2

DR-BARKS (Prevent/terminate)

• D = D.P.F. against you or another
• R = ROBBERY
• B = BURGLARY of DWELLING or OCCUPIED BUILDING
• A = ARSON (CAN BE A PASSER BY)
• R = RAPE (FORCIBLE)
• K = KIDNAPPING
• S = CRIMINAL SEXUAL ACT (FORCIBLE)

MR-&-MRS (Civilian arrest)

• M = MURDER
• R = ROBBERY
• M = MANSLAUGHTER 1ST DEGREE
• R

What are the Three Prongs of the Lemon Test?

• (1) It must have a "secular legislative purpose"
• (2) Neutral
• (3) Avoid an "excessive government entanglement with religion."
  • Establishment Clause prevents the government from creating an official church, from preferring one faith over another, and from discriminating against non-believers.

Different Ways to View the Establishment Clause and What Was the Only Reason...

• Accommodationist: According to the "accommodationist view," government needs religion to instill the moral values required for maintaining civil order. Modern-day accommodationists also argue that religion is part of the national heritage, and adds solemnity and dignity to civic events. Accordingly, accommodationists contend that government

Emblematic Art and Imagery

"In Occasionem"

The structure uses a question-and-answer format. The lady depicted is called “Occasio Calvata” (The Bald Opportunity/Passion). This image is part of a political pamphlet where the central idea is repeated consistently. The designs are repetitive: the image is surrounded by a frame, followed by the text. The woman in the image resembles a Venus figure.

"Pulchritudo sine fructu"

In this image, we see a tree—a cypress—in the middle of a hill. There are more hills behind it. One of the distant hills features a structure resembling a coliseum, and further back are more hills and mountains. They appear to be located on the coast. In the sky, we can observe only one cloud and four birds.

The Pre-Raphaelite

Hobbes's State of Nature and the Origin of Society

1. The State of Nature

Modern thinkers like Hobbes and Rousseau agree on the possibility of a state of nature without society, diverging from classical and medieval thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle, who believed humans were inherently social. Aristotle famously stated, "For living without society, you need to be a God or a Beast." Even today, some agree with this classical perspective. Hobbes, however, envisioned a state of nature defined by specific human characteristics:

• Selfishness and Instrumental Reason: Reason serves as a tool for selfish pursuits, driven by passions and desires.
• Equality: Despite minor differences in strength or ability, everyone is fundamentally equal because even

Statesmanship and Warcraft

Machiavelli believes that good laws follow naturally from a good military. Machiavelli reverses the conventional understanding of war as a necessary, but not definitive, element of the development of states. Instead, he asserts that successful war is the very foundation upon which all states are built. Much of The Prince is devoted to describing exactly what it means to conduct a good war. But Machiavelli's description of war encompasses more than just the direct use of military force when cities were constantly threatened by neighboring principalities, and the area had suffered through power struggles for many years.

Goodwill and Hatred

To remain in power, a prince must avoid the hatred of his people. It is not necessary... Continue reading "Machiavelli and Mill: Power, Liberty, and Human Nature" »

1. Justice and the Principle of Utility

Why is Justice a Problem for Utilitarianism?

The Principle of Utility often faces challenges regarding justice. One perspective suggests that it is acceptable for inequalities to develop if they meet two conditions:

1. They contribute to the overall good in the long run.
2. They can be achieved by anyone (fair opportunity).

4. Moral Issues Raised by Computers

Defining Analogical Reasoning in Ethics

Analogical reasoning serves as a crucial tool for comparing known moral baselines to situations where the morality is uncertain. By comparing similar cases that the observer already understands, conclusions can be drawn about a new, relatively similar topic.

Are Computer Ethics Truly New?

(See also Section 9 for further discussion... Continue reading "Key Ethical Concepts: Justice, Corporate Responsibility, and Software IP" »

Plato

Was a disciple of Socrates whose cornerstone of thought was his theory of Forms, in which there was another world of perfection. Uses thought to advance the Socratic dialogue. Dualistic Vision

Aristotle

Greek philosopher. A student of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry. Pluralistic Vision

Socrates

Greek philosopher; Socratic method--questioning; sentenced to death for corrupting Athens youth

Alexander the Great

Student of Aristotle, King of Macedonia who conquered Greece, Egypt, and Persia

Academy

school of philosophy founded by... Continue reading "Plato vs. Aristotle: Philosophy, Society, and Human Nature" »

Determinism and the Concept of Freedom

According to determinism, everything that happens is determined by prior causes. To say that A determines B is to say that A causes B (given A, B must follow). Determinism holds that every event is the necessary result of the chain of causes leading up to it, a chain that runs back into the past. One implication of this view is that all future states of the universe are completely predictable.

The principle that every event is caused is known as the causal principle. It is presupposed in science and also in everyday life. Most of the astonishing progress science has made over the past four centuries has been made on the basis of a mechanistic and deterministic view of the world. If determinism is right,... Continue reading "Determinism, Materialism, and the Nature of Free Will" »