Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes' Philosophical Context and Major Works

Animals are capable of carnal love, and we were like trees, sensitive beings. If objects could not love, anything that has movement and feeling could. But as we are men, created in the image of our Creator, who is the eternal truth, eternal and true love, we are able to return there in the triple form of human nature, as the image of God. "I am, I know, I want to be."

René Descartes was born in 1596. He studied at the Jesuit college of La Flèche. After graduation, he decided to learn from the "great book of the world." In 1619, he embarked on a search for truth through the use of reason. His most important works are:

• Rules for the Direction of the Spirit: An unfinished work containing twenty-one

The Dawn of Modern Philosophy

Renaissance Thought, spanning from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century, marked the pivotal transition from medieval to modern philosophy. It was profoundly characterized by a humanistic turn.

From Divine to Human Focus

During this period, God and Christianity ceased to be the sole central points of thought, giving rise to humans as the primary focus. Concurrently, the Church began to lose its exclusive authority in intellectual matters.

Medieval Roots and Renaissance Reactions

The early Middle Ages had limited knowledge of Greek sources, and the period was largely influenced by the Platonism of St. Augustine's extensive work, and to a lesser extent, the Stoics, Skeptics, and Epicureans. However, the late Middle... Continue reading "Renaissance Philosophy: Humanism, Science, and Intellectual Transformation" »

1. Descartes' Methodical Doubt

Overcoming Doubt

Descartes' methodical doubt, unlike radical skepticism, is provisional. The goal is to find a truth that is undeniable.

The Purpose

Descartes' method begins with a diagnosis applied to the era. Humanity is like a sick man who must free himself from his sickness. Descartes decides that the path to truth must undergo a destructive critique of everything we know with certainty.

The Method

Descartes' method is like having faith in critique. It is a seemingly impossible task. He asks skeptical questions, directly attacking the foundations of our knowledge. He applies skepticism to doubt our senses and reason.

1.1 First Argument: Senses and Reason

We cannot trust our senses because they often deceive us (e.... Continue reading "Methodical Doubt in Descartes' Philosophy" »

Ethics: Definition and Etymology

Ethics originates from the Greek ethos, referring to character and various aspects of decision-making and responsibility. It is a branch of philosophy that determines the concept of good and evil within specific cultural contexts to improve practical existence. Ethics analyzes the moral life of humans, teaching how to live well and focusing on preferences. It justifies our actions, choices, and behavior, underlying our morality. In essence, ethics and moral philosophy examine human life situations, justify human choices, forge character, and provide living standards.

Morality: Definition and Etymology

The word moral has its roots in the Latin word mos, meaning 'custom' or 'usual'. The moral universe is defined... Continue reading "Ethics and Morality: Principles and Philosophical Traditions" »

Descartes' View of Mind and Body

Descartes' anthropology presents man as a composite of two distinct substances: res cogitans (the thinking substance or soul) and res extensa (the extended substance or body). These substances are considered independent and autonomous.

The Mind-Body Problem

Two important questions arise from this dualism: how do these substances relate, and how do they communicate? Their relationship is undeniable: when the soul gives orders, the body obeys. Descartes' duality of man is a direct result of his metaphysical dualism.

Since the understanding has a clear and distinct idea of thinking substance and a clear and distinct idea of extended substance, it is evident that these are two different, independent substances. This... Continue reading "Descartes: Mind, Body, and Reality" »

Nietzsche's Stages

Context: Three Phases

Youth/Romantic Period

During his youth, Nietzsche studied Greek culture and was influenced by Wagner's music and Schopenhauer's pessimism. This period deals with pre-Socratics like Heraclitus, emphasizing tragic thinkers, intellectual solitude, and a lucid approach. He critically examined Socrates, viewing moral reasoning as resentment and hatred towards life.

Transitional Period

In this non-positivist phase, Nietzsche draws upon experimental sciences to challenge the romantic values he previously held. This transforms him into a free spirit, opposing his former mentors.

Maturity Period

Nietzsche expounds on key themes like eternal recurrence, the death of God, and the superman. He strongly criticizes the... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: A Critique of Western Culture" »

Descartes' Ethics: Actions and Passions

Descartes distinguishes between actions and passions. Actions are the decisions and behaviors that depend on the will. Passions, however, are involuntary, depending on the body and the vital spirits (as described by Galen in medicine). They encompass feelings, emotions, and perceptions that are intrinsically linked to the body.

The Nature of Passions

Being dependent on the body, passions can exaggerate good and evil, making some things appear more desirable or difficult to obtain than they truly are. The soul's passions can exert pressure in opposing directions, sometimes leading towards good, and sometimes pulling one away from it.

Reason's Role in Governing Passions

Reason must govern human life and conduct,... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Reason, Passions, and Provisional Morality" »

Theory of Knowledge

The Sophists claimed that words were meaningless. However, Socrates and Plato argued against this. In Plato's dialogues, the spoken word was considered a convention, suggesting that things are named arbitrarily. This raised the question of how language originated.

Another theory explored the essence of things, proposing that names should reflect the inherent nature of objects. However, this theory faced challenges due to the existence of different languages.

The third theory, selection intelligible, posits that there are degrees of knowledge. Plato illustrated this with the "allegory of the segmented line," dividing knowledge into two realms: Doxa and Episteme.

Doxa encompasses assumptions and expert opinions about physical... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge: Ideas, Soul, and Reminiscence" »

Key Concepts in Justice

• Synthesis: Summary
• Human Rights: Rights inherent to all human beings
• Rule of Law: All people and institutions are subject to and accountable to law
• Procedural Guarantees: Protections entitling a person to a fair trial and punishment
• Abolition: Elimination
• Impartiality: Not sacrificing justice for personal interests
• Means of Coercion: Means used to ensure justice is not sacrificed for personal interests
• Federation of Free States: A type of political organization in which each state cedes part of its sovereignty to a federal government
• Cosmopolitan Right: A set of rules allowing for socially and ecologically responsible economic development by the state

Political and Ethical Theories

• Liberalism

  This theory promotes civil liberties

Affirming Life

Nietzsche seeks to affirm life, accepting it as it is: a spontaneous instinct that manifests as a struggle of forces where some are created and others are destroyed, where nothing is permanent. Life is a creative force, asserting the will to power, which is the desire to live (vital force). In his critique of philosophy, Nietzsche states that decadence starts with Socrates and is reflected in the traditional concepts of Western culture, which is a reflection of Platonic Dualism.

Nihilism

Nihilism is a consequence of the decadence of Western culture, which has fundamentally denied life and affirmed nothing. There are two types of nihilism:

• Passive Nihilism: This is the discovery that all cultural values are false and everything Western