Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Critique of Progress and the Social Contract Idea

In his critique of society, emerging from the idea of progress, Jean-Jacques Rousseau argues that it is impossible to return to the idyllic state of nature. As a solution to the appearance and artificiality to which society leads, he proposed the idea of the Social Contract.

Purpose and Foundations of the Social Contract

This contract represents the basis for establishing a legitimate society, designed to foster justice and happiness among its citizens, thereby excluding inequality. It aims to overcome the shortcomings of previous states (the state of nature and corrupted civil society) by promoting a social model where individuals live in harmony, with their human integrity encompassing both feeling... Continue reading "Rousseau's Social Contract: Foundations of a Just Society" »

Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754)

The work Man and Society, presented in the Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men (1754), marks a crucial starting point for anthropological thought. It introduces the hypothesis (due to a lack of empirical data) of the "state of nature," the condition in which humans lived before forming organized society.

The State of Nature: True, Good, and Happy

Under this original scenario, man in the state of nature is characterized as true, good, and happy. He is moved primarily by two fundamental feelings:

• Love of Self (Amour de soi): The instinct for self-conservation.
• Compassion for Others: A natural aversion to seeing others suffer (in direct opposition to the views of Hobbes).

In this state, individuals... Continue reading "Rousseau's Philosophy: Inequality, Society, and the State of Nature" »

René Descartes' philosophical system begins with the indubitable truth of the cogito: "I think, therefore I am." From this foundational certainty of our own existence and thought, Descartes proceeds to demonstrate the existence of God. He asserts that without proving God's existence and goodness, it is impossible to achieve certainty about anything else, as a deceptive God could undermine all our perceptions.

The Argument from Innate Ideas and Perfection

Descartes posits that all that exists in our mind for conceiving things are ideas. Among the various types of ideas, some are neither derived from external things nor created by our imagination; these are innate ideas. They arise from the mere capacity to think, by the lumen naturale rationis... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophical Arguments for God's Existence" »

Thomas Aquinas' Five Ways to God's Existence

Thomas Aquinas' demonstrations of the existence of God, famously known as "The Five Ways" (Quinque Viae), have profoundly influenced philosophical and theological thought. Aquinas deemed it necessary to prove God's existence because it is not immediately obvious to human reason. He asserted that such a demonstration is possible by observing the sensible world around us.

Aquinas did not accept the ontological argument proposed by Anselm of Canterbury, which relies solely on a priori reasoning and dispenses with empirical experience. While "The Five Ways" are presented as five distinct arguments in the Summa Theologica, only four appear in the Summa Contra Gentiles. The exact number, however, is less... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas' Five Proofs for God's Existence" »

The Role of the Owner

The owner of an enterprise refers to the individual or group holding ownership of the company. They contribute capital to establish it, purchase machinery, and sometimes provide goods, property, or plant. They can also provide both money and necessary assets.

These necessary resources can be provided by a single person or several individuals.

The Function of Management

In small companies, the owner typically runs the business themselves. However, it is also possible for this task to be performed by another person contracted to manage operations on their behalf.

This reality introduces another crucial concept: management (or direction). This function is exercised by those with the authority to set goals, make timely decisions... Continue reading "Business Ownership, Management, and Corporate Governance" »

The Enduring Legacy of Thomas Aquinas

Early Opposition and the Rise of Thomism

Following the death of Thomas Aquinas, his philosophy faced significant opposition, particularly from the Franciscans. They regarded Saint Augustine as the most faithful exponent of the Christian view. This opposition culminated in the condemnation of certain Thomistic doctrines by ecclesiastical authorities in Paris and Oxford in 1277. However, it soon became clear that these fears were unfounded. Following the canonization of Saint Thomas in 1323, Thomism expanded significantly, becoming a dominant intellectual force.

Reason and Faith: Aquinas Versus Augustine

A central theme in medieval philosophy is the ongoing debate between reason and faith. Thomas Aquinas, unlike... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas: Reason, Faith, and Scholastic Philosophy" »

Comprehensive Glossary of Terms

A

• Archbishop: Metropolitan Bishop of the Church or one who has such honors.
• Autocratic: Relating to an autocracy or autocrat.
• Acclamation: Action and effect of cheering, giving voice to the crowd.
• Amnesty: Pardon of a certain group of political crimes, granted by law.
• Agree: To agree on terms or conditions for concluding a business deal.
• Adjudicate: To dismiss the action and effect.
• Adjacent: Adjoining, bordering, borderline. Describes the land which bounds a town with another land.
• Appellant: One who resorts. A person who has filed an appeal.

B

• Bind: To ensure adhesion in tissues.

C

• Contrast: To resist, cope. To show remarkable disagreement or opposition of one thing with another.
• Covet: To desire eagerly wealth and property.

The Possibility of Metaphysics as Science

The problem of metaphysics concerns the possibility of rigorous scientific knowledge about God, freedom, or immortality. Metaphysics faces inherent deficiencies that place it at a disadvantage in relation to empirical science:

• Science progresses, while metaphysics often does not.
• Scientists generally agree on their theories and conclusions, whereas disagreement is common among metaphysicians.

The question arises: Can metaphysics be constructed like the sciences? If the answer is yes, then this deplorable state can be overcome. If not, perhaps it is better to abandon the construction of metaphysical systems.

To clarify whether metaphysics is possible as a science, a prior question must be addressed: How is

The Organization of the State as the Subject of DC

Here we are interested in developing the idea that when we speak of an authority that can be imposed, we believe it is political power, which has the capacity to decide and implement the standards. Political power has a monopoly on force in a community where violent acts are used to achieve social peace. Speaking of state power, we must also discuss an approach to organization, which consists of rules governing the operation of that power and even its monopoly. The criteria affecting the organization of the State are of three types:

1. Historico-Empirical Type (Heller)

This approach takes its reference from the anthropological features that occur in different social groups. The basic idea is that... Continue reading "Understanding State Organization and Political Power Dynamics" »

Permanent Disability

Permanent disability refers to a situation in which a worker, after undergoing the prescribed treatment, experiences serious anatomical or functional reductions. These reductions are objectively determinable, definitive, and expected to reduce or nullify their ability to work.

Grades of Permanent Disability

• Partial Disability: Does not decrease below 33% in the employee's normal performance for their usual job and they can perform the essential functions of the same.
• Total Disability: Inability to perform all basic tasks of the usual occupation, but the individual may engage in a different one.
• Absolute Disability: Disables the employee from performing any profession.
• Major Disability: The resulting losses from anatomical and