Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

From Cosmology to Science

Early questions about the order of the universe led to the development of cosmogonies. When the existence of principles or laws explaining the regularity of events was sought, the first science of the universe, or cosmology, emerged. Cosmology is the part of philosophy that studies the physical world, providing a general picture through critical reflection. One of the initial key questions concerned the relationship between reason, senses, and observation techniques. With the rise of the scientific method, cosmology was gradually replaced by empirical science.

Defining Science

Science is a human activity that generates a systematic and organized body of knowledge using laws and general principles. However, not all disciplines... Continue reading "Understanding Science: Methods, Classification, and Limits" »

Epistemology in Kant's *Critique of Pure Reason*

In the *Critique of Pure Reason* (CPR), Kant answers the first question raised: What can I know? The question of what we know leads to a more specific question: whether or not a metaphysical science is possible, if one can gain scientific knowledge regarding the world, God, or the soul. In his view, there are two conditions that any intended scientific discourse should satisfy: universality in judgment and the provision of information. This being so, he proposes to operate a sea-change in the epistemological field because, if so far we have assumed that "all our knowledge must be guided by the objects," there is no way of knowing something in them *a priori*. He then expresses the need for objects

Argumentative Texts: Key Features

An argumentative text advocates an idea through the presentation of reasons, aiming to convince the recipient. Key characteristics include:

• Subjectivity: The author expresses their vision of the subject from their own point of view.
• Thematic Issue: Commonly discusses political issues, politics, religion, or education.
• Persuasion: Attempts to convince the intended recipient through data and information that is as complete as possible.
• Clarity and Order: Essential for the arguments to be understood.

Argumentative structures:

• Deductive Structure: Presents a general thesis and attempts to show particular arguments.
• Inductive Structure: Goes from the particular to the general main idea.

The Claim

It is an argumentative text... Continue reading "Argumentative Texts and the Generation of '98: Features" »

The Peloponnesian War and its Impact on Athenian Society

The Peloponnesian War pitted **Sparta** against **Athens**. Civil strife resulted from tensions accumulated over a century between two different social and political systems: the oligarchic and anarchic Spartan system, and the Athenian system, with increasing participation of the people.

Cultural Tensions in Ancient Greece

On the cultural level, there was tension between the persistence of religious traditions and the spirit of innovation and streamlining. We can see this in Greek literature, especially in the tragedies of Sophocles, Euripides, and others.

Plato's Philosophy: The Search for the Ideal

This search for the ideal, or perfect, characterizes the philosophy of **Plato**, who conceives... Continue reading "Plato's Republic: Justice, Ideal City, and the Philosopher-King" »

Marx's Criticisms of H, L, R Models

Marx's criticisms of the models by H, L, R (presumably Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau) include:

1. They start with an abstract individual, i.e., considered separately from the context that gave them birth.
2. They assert the state is rational and universal, whereas Marx contended that, far from being a mediating instrument, it becomes a dominator.

Critique of Abstract Separation

The modern theory of abstract principles, or "abstract separation" (Abstracto separado), means that it abstractly considers and separates individuals from the context that has engendered them. Individuals are the product of a culture, society, and historical epoch, and only exist from this conception. The idea of a "state of nature" as a separate... Continue reading "Marx's Core Concepts: Work, Alienation, and History" »

Influences on Nietzsche's Philosophy

Nineteenth-century philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, born in Saxony, received a large number of influences. These were based on the classical Greek world during an early stage, and various philosophers of the modern age in the second stage of his thought.

His engagement with ancient Greece focuses on the tension between the Dionysian and Apollonian worldviews. He strongly denied the influence of Socrates and Plato, but accepted Heraclitus, taking from him the claim of the existence of contradiction and movement, and studies on change and opposition.

In his first phase, the influence of the Sophists, Stoicism, and early Christianity can also be observed.

In the second phase, we find a strong impact from Enlightenment... Continue reading "Nietzsche: Influences, Life, and Philosophical Context" »

Immanuel Kant: Life and Work

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was a German philosopher, widely considered to be one of the most influential thinkers of the modern era. Born in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) on April 22, 1724, Kant was educated at the Collegium Fredericianum and the University of Königsberg. At school, he studied the classics, and at university, he focused on physics and mathematics. After his father's death, he was forced to leave university and earn a living as a private tutor. In 1755, with the help of a friend, he resumed his studies and obtained his doctorate.

He then taught at the university for 15 years, initially lecturing on science and mathematics, and gradually expanding to cover almost all branches of philosophy.... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant: Life, Philosophy, and the Copernican Revolution" »

Liberal Resistance & Return to Absolutism in Spain

Liberals, wary of the shift, traveled to swear allegiance to the new Constitution and policy framework. However, absolutists quickly demanded the restoration of absolutism, as seen in the Manifesto of the Persians. By Royal Decree on May 4, 1814, Ferdinand VII annulled the Constitution and laws of Cadiz, marking a return to the old regime. From 1815 onward, Ferdinand VII and his government faced the impossible task of rebuilding a war-torn nation. The country suffered immense human losses, and the royal treasury was bankrupt. Peasants, unable to pay rent, protested and demanded the reinstatement of old tributes. Liberal military uprisings, urban riots, and rural unrest demonstrated widespread... Continue reading "Spain's Shift: From Absolutism to Liberal Unrest & Augustine's Pursuit of Truth" »

What is Philosophy?

Philosophy is an intellectual activity, though not always well-defined, linked to reflection and theorizing. It is also an activity related to adopting certain attitudes towards life and is linked to personal action. It is a discourse that claims knowledge is based on three basic elements:

• Rationality: Trying to give rational explanations.
• Totality: Attempting to explain everything and not be divided into parts.
• Radicality of Questions: Trying to reach the limit of knowledge.

Philosophy is a work in constant progress; it never ends. You can always find new questions and new answers. It is usually related to questions that are more important than the answers. Philosophy tries to clarify ideas critically, to justify and defend... Continue reading "Understanding Philosophy: Theory and Practice" »

Hume vs. Descartes: Core Philosophical Differences

David Hume, a prominent empiricist, argued that knowledge stems fundamentally from experience. He famously used the example of pool balls to illustrate that we cannot logically deduce a cause-and-effect relationship between two successive events merely through reason; we only observe constant conjunction. For Hume, our belief in causality is an unjustified product of the mind, guided by custom or habit, arising from repeated observations.

Both Hume and René Descartes sought to justify their doubts about existing knowledge and outlined methods for finding absolute truth. However, their approaches differed significantly. Hume started from sense perception and used induction (forming general laws... Continue reading "Hume vs. Descartes: Empiricism & Rationalism Compared" »