Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

ConoSentidos (Sensory Knowledge)

Sensory knowledge, like in the living area, incorporates living without the defined form. It sensitively captures perceived objects without material capture. Perception is accurate and characterizes existing qualities in the sensuous faculty in the world. The soul is the ability to receive forms, so instantly perception of the unit is a sensitive faculty that has taken shape.

ConoLogica (Logical Knowledge): The Syllogism

A study on investigations said that there was nothing prior to logic that deserves mention, so its creator is considered the founder of that branch of knowledge. If logic is not introduced in science, it is because it is considered an instrument for scientific knowledge, prior to science itself.... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy: Knowledge, Logic, Ethics, and Happiness" »

Kant's Life in Historical Context

Kant lived in Prussia during the reign of Frederick the Great, the "philosopher king," whose form of government was enlightened despotism - "everything for the people, without the people" - with its promotion of social reforms. Internationally, momentous historical events occurred, such as the independence of the United States and its Constitution's proclamation, and the French Revolution (1789) - and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, which are the basis of the modern liberal sociocultural democratic framework. Socially, a crisis occurred between the aristocratic and hierarchical class society of the Old Regime and the triumphant bourgeoisie of the French Revolution. These were the main actors... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant: Life, Philosophy, and Historical Impact" »

The Ethics of Saint Thomas Aquinas

The ethics of Saint Thomas Aquinas has a teleological and eudaimonistic vision, asserting that the greatest happiness is the ultimate end of life. Aquinas states that maximum happiness is achieved through the contemplation of God; thus, life is directed towards this contemplation. It is a unifying vision that seeks union with God.

Natural Law and Moral Principles

Just as all life has a purpose, human beings also have one. This purpose allows for the inference of moral principles, using reason and principles given by natural understanding. These principles constitute Natural Law, which Aquinas describes as clear, universal, compulsory, and immutable.

Natural Law contains two fundamental principles:

• To do good and

Material and Formal Ethics

In the realm of media, material ethics considers actions as good or bad depending on the aim pursued. Immanuel Kant rejects this view because:

• Its imperatives are not universal.
• They are hypothetical, holding value only if we accept the good they seek as inherently good.
• They are heteronomous, meaning that humans determine what is good or bad.

In contrast, formal ethics views behaviors as inherently good or bad in themselves.

• It does not establish any ultimate good that humans should pursue.
• It merely dictates how we should act to behave morally, not the specific acts themselves.

Thus, moral principles are universal, necessary, and immutable.

Natural Law vs. Positivism

Natural Law is a legal tradition within the philosophy... Continue reading "Material vs. Formal Ethics, Social Origins, and Political Philosophy" »

Scientific Knowledge: Core Concepts

Scientific knowledge is built upon specific characteristics, a unique language, and rigorous methodologies.

Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge

• Neutrality or Absence of Prejudices: Addressing serious issues without bias.
• Critical Spirit: A continuous questioning and evaluation of findings.
• Intersubjectivity: The demand for shared understanding and verifiable results among different observers.

The Scientific Revolution (16th and 17th Centuries)

This period marked science's independence from philosophy. Early modern scientists included Kepler, Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton.

Key Characteristics of the Scientific Revolution:

• Experimentation: Observation plays a crucial role, but not all phenomena are observable

What Are Incoterms and When Are They Used?

Incoterms are defined and developed by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), with the aim of establishing a standardized language that can be used by buyers and sellers involved in international business.

Key Incoterms Explained

EXW - Ex Works

The seller's only responsibility is to make the goods available to the buyer at the seller's premises (factory, warehouse, etc.). The buyer bears all costs and risks from that point.

FCA - Free Carrier

The seller must deliver the goods, cleared for export, to the carrier or another person nominated by the buyer at the named place. The seller loads the goods if delivery occurs at the seller's premises.

FAS - Free Alongside Ship

The seller is responsible for placing

Plato's Metaphysics: The Theory of Two Worlds

Plato's metaphysics presents a dualistic conception of reality. He proposes the existence of two distinct worlds:

• The sensible world (physical): This is the world we perceive through our senses. It is a world of constant change and imperfection.
• The metaphysical world (World of Ideas or Forms): This world is composed of perfect, immaterial, immutable, and incorruptible entities called "Ideas" or "Forms." These Ideas are not merely concepts but have their own independent existence.

The World of Ideas is intelligible, meaning we can access it through pure reason, not through the senses. It contains:

• Mathematical concepts (numbers, etc.)
• General concepts relating to the physical world (animal, sun, clouds,

This text delves into the philosophy of René Descartes, a prominent figure born in 1596 in Touraine, France, who passed away in 1650 in Sweden. He is recognized as one of the leading representatives of Modern Philosophy and is widely considered the father of Rationalism. His most important work, Discourse on Method, outlines the necessity for a new philosophical method, fundamentally based on mathematical deduction. Other significant works include Meditations on First Philosophy (often referred to as Metaphysical Meditations), Treatise on the World, Principles of Philosophy, and Rules for the Direction of the Mind. Descartes's thought emerged as a significant outcome of the Humanist and Scientistic movements. He became the chief representative... Continue reading "René Descartes: Architect of Modern Rationalism" »

Animal and Human Intelligence: A Comparison

Is there a fundamental difference between animal and human intelligence? While animals demonstrate intelligence through tool use and problem-solving in their immediate environment, human intelligence exhibits a qualitative leap. Humans utilize abstract thought, signs, symbols, and conceptual design, allowing for the application of knowledge across diverse situations. Animals primarily operate on a stimulus-response model, whereas humans can generalize solutions. For example, a chimpanzee might learn to use a stick to obtain food, but a human can apply the concept of leverage in countless scenarios.

The Cultural Animal

Humans are uniquely defined by their dual nature: biological beings shaped by cultural... Continue reading "Human vs Animal Intelligence & Society Evolution" »

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

To the rationalist, metaphysics was the body of knowledge to which man can reach by his own lights, sound as a carrier of these ideas since birth. These innate ideas are embedded in humans and can be discovered without the help of experience, just by thinking. For rationalists, the metaphysical has to develop and organize the rest of knowledge, based on innate and obvious truths.

For the empiricist, all knowledge comes from outside, from what our senses pick up. So for them, there are no innate ideas, but a mind, initially 'virgin', in which experience is typed. They denied any possibility of metaphysics, and dogmatism and moral consequences are derived from all of this. In denying the metaphysical, everything is reduced... Continue reading "Kant's Critical Philosophy: Bridging Rationalism and Empiricism" »