Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

The Death of God: A Critique of Western Metaphysics and Culture

The concept of the "death of God" in Nietzsche's philosophy represents a profound critique of traditional Western values, particularly those rooted in Christianity. Nietzsche viewed Christianity as a form of "vulgar Platonism," characterized by a fundamental division between two realms:

• The external, "real" world: This is the transcendent, otherworldly realm, often associated with the afterlife or the Platonic world of perfect, eternal Forms.
• The internal, "illusory" world: This is the earthly, imperfect realm of sensory experience.

Nietzsche argued that this Platonic-Christian worldview has had a pervasive influence on Western thought, tracing a clear line of continuity from Plato'... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Death of God and the Superman" »

Human Origins and Development

Creationism vs. Evolution

Creationism posits the separate and final creation of all living species. In contrast, Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) introduced the concept of evolution, where species undergo continuous transformations through natural selection. Mendel's work on biological inheritance further refined our understanding of how traits are passed down. Modern evolutionary theory combines natural selection with mutations.

Theories of Human Origin

There are several theories regarding the origin of our species. The multiregional theory (Wolpoff) suggests that Homo sapiens arose from different prehistoric populations worldwide through continuous gene flow. The "Out of Africa" theory (Stringer)... Continue reading "Human Evolution, Culture, and Behavior" »

What is History?

History is a social science that studies human life in society, considering the space and time in which they live. It uses a specific method and selects documents to develop historical knowledge. Historians define their object of study and then select and define the documents they will use. These documents can include oral testimonies, material remains, written documents, etc. Space and time are key to the historian, as human societies occupy a space and exist within a given time that influences them.

• It is a social science.
• Based on documents from the past: evidence, letters, testimonies, images, and fossil remains.
• Space and time are key.
• Hypothesis, observation, experiment, conclusion, or theory.

Reflection on the Meaning of Studying

Karl Marx: A Materialist Perspective

The Essence of Man

Marx argues that the essence of man lies in work, emphasizing our material relationship with nature and others. While this perspective holds merit, it overlooks the sentimental aspect of human existence. Family bonds, for example, are not solely material but deeply emotional. However, I agree with Marx's assertion that humans must produce their livelihoods; acquiring goods or food necessitates work.

Alienation of the Worker

Marx's theory of alienation posits that workers are alienated from the product and process of their labor. Forced to sell their labor power for survival, they lose control over their work and themselves. This resonates with the current reality where unskilled workers... Continue reading "Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche: A Comparative Analysis" »

The Hegelian Dialectic

Kant argues that there is only technological progress, not moral. Hegel takes up these ideas, stating that there is moral progress as a result of history. History is dialectical; it works reasonably well with the triad thesis-antithesis-synthesis. Any statement in itself implies a negation, so the whole thesis generates an antithesis. These confront each other. The confrontation can only be overcome by another phase: synthesis. The synthesis is a time where we integrate the best, most rational aspects of the thesis and the antithesis. The synthesis generates a new thesis, and therefore another antithesis. It forms a chain, but Hegel says that there will be a final synthesis. This process is history. Each new synthesis... Continue reading "Hegel's Dialectic and Marx's Class Struggle" »

Circumstances that Foster Global Citizenship

Several factors contribute to the rise of global citizenship. These include:

• Shortening distances between people across the globe.
• Disappearing borders.
• Development of advanced communication technologies.

These changes raise hope for humanity to work together to build a better world and achieve shared happiness.

Key Changes in the 20th Century

• Disappearance of physical borders.
• Automatic, direct, and immediate communication with anyone worldwide.
• Access to any information.
• Ability to engage in dialogue and make friends without leaving one's chair.
• Access to images and real-time processing of events on television.

Advantages of New Technologies

• Improvement in personal development.
• Enhanced staff training and quality

Descartes: A Transition to Modern Philosophy

Descartes lived during the Renaissance, a period of transition between medieval and modern philosophy. Key features of this era include:

• Decomposition of feudalism: The emergence of a new class-based society.
• Loss of medieval religious meaning: A shift from theocentrism to anthropocentrism, with the rise of national monarchies.
• Secular spirit: Civil power and politicians distanced themselves from the Church.
• Discoveries: New geographical and scientific discoveries expanded the known world.
• Reformation: The breakdown of religious unity.
• The new science: A focus on mathematizing the observable world.
• Everything: The problem of actually going into the background.

Rationalism in the 17th and 18th Centuries

Rationalism... Continue reading "Descartes: Rationalism and the Cartesian Method" »

Power

Power: The capacity to perform a transformation on an object or the potential to become something. It is divided into active and passive:

• Active Power: The ability, power, or authority to enact a transformation on something or to produce something. This understanding of power is present in everyday language, such as when we say a car is powerful or someone has a powerful imagination. Aristotle also uses this notion in psychology, for example, defining the powers and the active powers of the soul.
• Passive Power: The capacity or aptitude to become something else, a determination to acquire a form. Examples of this understanding are present in our language, as when we say that someone has a future as a footballer and is potentially a good player.

Metaphysical Period: 6th Century BC to 17th Century AD

There are two stages:

• Naturalist (5th-6th Century BC): This is the thought of the Greeks, who argued that nature is perfect and eternal. Nature includes the world, humans, and gods.
• Supernatural (5th Century BC to 17th Century AD): The natural world is not as important as the supernatural world. Society returns to the myth.

Naturalism

Nature is the foundation of three branches of philosophy:

• Ethics: Refers to individual behavior and gives reason-based standards to guide it. Conscience must be based on nature.
• Morality: A set of customary rules that tell us what is good and what is bad. Born to criticize from the right.
• Law: Intended to establish standards to guide our conduct in connection with

Aristotle: The Political Animal

For Aristotle, humans are inherently political animals. He believed that the city arises from a natural progression, starting with the individual, then the family (necessary for reproduction), and finally, society. This allows individuals to not only live but to live well, assuming favorable economic conditions that free some individuals from material tasks, enabling them to pursue uniquely human endeavors.

While Aristotle argued that humans are political animals (meaning they participate in the state's life, not merely live in society), he acknowledged that not all individuals fully realize this potential.

Hobbes: Absolute Sovereignty

Hobbes advocated for individuals to cede their power and strength to a single... Continue reading "Aristotle, Hobbes, and Rousseau: Social Contract Theories" »