Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Reasons to Doubt

• Senses: Doubts about the senses and sense knowledge obtained from external reality. Senses can be misleading.
• Sleep and Wakefulness: The problem of distinguishing between sleep and wakefulness. Sometimes, dreams are so vivid that we feel things as truth. The inability to discern if one is living in a dream or in a waking state.
• Knowledge: Doubt in one's knowledge and reasoning processes. One can make errors in reasoning.
• The Hypothesis of the Evil Genie: It is possible that there is an evil genie deceiving me, even about what appears to me as obvious.

Conclusion of Methodical Doubt

After carrying out doubt on all these points, the only thing that remains is the doubt itself. The object of doubt is a reaffirmation of the indubitability... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Doubt, Existence, and Innate Ideas" »

Introduction: The Need for Language

Humans require language to gather information necessary for survival and communication. Communication enhances knowledge of life science and human culture. Language arises to avoid gaps in communication.

Ordinary Language

Ordinary language refers to the languages commonly used by humans to communicate with each other.

Functions of Ordinary Language

• Representative: To affirm or deny a predicate of a subject.
• Expressive: To express one's own attitudes, desires, and emotions.
• Appellative: To provoke actions in the receivers.
• Performative: To perform a linguistic act and an extra-linguistic one simultaneously.
• Metalinguistic: To speak about the language itself.

Problems with Ordinary Language

• Equivocal terms: Terms that

Rawls' Principles of Justice

Rawls defines two main principles:

• Principle of Equal Liberty

  All people possess the same fundamental freedoms and rights.

• Principle of Economic Inequality

  This principle permits economic inequalities only if they benefit all. It is justified if two conditions are met:

  • Economic inequalities must improve the situation of the least advantaged members of society (the Difference Principle).
  • Economic inequalities must be attached to positions and offices open to all under conditions of Fair Equality of Opportunity.

  Therefore, it is not unfair for some people to be richer than others if these two conditions are met. Such differences may arise because individuals possess varying levels of proficiency, skill, or ability to utilize

Philosophy is an activity that reflects on concepts. It involves examining concepts without preconceived notions and responding with arguments or reasoning, similar to Aristotle's approach. According to him, the origin of philosophy lies in the admiration for strange phenomena that we don't understand by nature or because we lack instinctive explanations. Explanations can be:

• Pre-rational: Myths are explanations based on imagination. These fantasy stories tell of supernatural beings and random events.
• Rational: These explanations originated in Miletus (6th century BC) due to its geographical location and commercial activity. The rise of democracy in Miletus contributed to the development of rational reasoning.

Types of Rational Explanations:

• Scientific

Truth as Correspondence

The theory of truth as correspondence rests on two assumptions: first, that there is a reality independent of thought, and second, that this reality can be known. This aligns with empiricist and realistic theories of knowledge.

Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas held this view, stating that truth is the correspondence between the intellect and the thing. Russell later refined this theory, proposing an isomorphism between reality and thought. Tarski emphasized the mediating role of language in the process of knowledge.

Truth as Coherence

Theories of truth as coherence are favored by rationalistic or idealistic thinkers like Spinoza, Leibniz, and Hegel. These theories operate at a linguistic level, focusing on the relationships... Continue reading "Understanding Different Perspectives on Truth" »

Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development

Pre-conventional Morality

At this level, there is no understanding of social rules. Moral questions are considered only from a personal perspective.

Conventional Morality

Judgments are made based on the rules and expectations of the individual's social group. Moral issues are addressed to maintain membership within the group.

Post-conventional Morality

Individuals understand societal rules but are not limited by them. Thought is governed by principles and values accepted because they are based on general principles. Moral reasoning involves:

• Defining what is good.
• Using reasons to defend the perception of good.

Kohlberg's Moral Education

The goal is to maximize the capacity for moral judgment development through:... Continue reading "Understanding Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development" »

Thomas Aquinas: Faith, Reason, and God

Philosophical Approach

Thomas Aquinas, a great scholar and teacher, dedicated his life to teaching and writing. A primary question throughout his work is the relationship between faith and reason. Aquinas sought a balance and reconciliation between the two, based on these principles:

• Clear distinction between reason and faith: Reason is a natural human faculty; faith is a supernatural gift from divine grace.
• Reason cannot contradict revealed truth: If reasoning conflicts with revealed truth, the reasoning is false by definition.
• Three kinds of truths: Truths of natural reason, preambles of faith, and revealed truths.

Aquinas stressed the importance of natural law and reserved a significant place for Aristotelianism.... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham: Faith, Reason, and the Existence of God" »

Relations Between Reason and Faith

Saint Thomas Aquinas argued for the unity of truth, asserting that both reason (derived from sensory data) and faith (based on divine revelation) offer independent paths to understanding. While truths of faith are accepted without question, truths of reason (philosophy) can be explored through human intellect. Some truths of faith can be demonstrated rationally, such as the preambles of faith. Reason, faith, and theology converge, with theology illuminating natural theological truths. Philosophy and reason are erroneous only when their conclusions contradict faith.

Demonstration of the Existence of God

While accepting God's existence as revealed by faith, Aquinas offered five proofs based on sensory experience:... Continue reading "Saint Thomas Aquinas: Philosophy, Theology, and Existence of God" »

John Locke's Key Concepts in Political Philosophy

Consent

Consent can be either express or tacit:

• Express Consent: Free and voluntary individual agreement to join a political community. It is expressed in an explicit and clear way to establish a new community.
• Tacit Consent: Implicitly granted by any individual by the mere fact of living in and enjoying the benefits of an already established community.

State of Nature

The State of Nature is the hypothetical situation in which humans exist before forming a civil society through the social contract. In this state, individuals are governed by natural moral law, which grants them certain rights (life, liberty, equality, independence, and property) and the power to enforce the law.

Legitimate Government

A... Continue reading "Understanding Locke's Political Philosophy: Key Concepts" »

Modern Social and Political Theories

Thomas Hobbes, in his work Leviathan, discusses the social contract, where power is relinquished for societal order. He describes the state of initial human nature as a hypothetical situation of homo homini lupus (man is a wolf to man), where human nature is inherently destructive, leading to conflict and self-destruction. The welfare state, or life in society, necessitates suppressing destructive instincts and passions for security, achieved through acceptance of the law. The sovereign, possessing absolute power, represents this law, ensuring survival.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's concept of the noble savage, an innocent primitive without original sin, proposes innate human goodness. Social... Continue reading "Modern Social and Political Theories: Hobbes, Rousseau, Aristotle" »