Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems

1. Why is the Brain a "Miser"?

• The brain is often described as a "miser" because it strives to conserve cognitive resources and minimize mental energy expenditure. This principle, known as **cognitive miserliness**, refers to how the brain prefers using shortcuts and simplified processes to make decisions and respond to the world efficiently. It avoids complex, energy-consuming tasks whenever possible. This approach affects consumer behavior as shoppers tend to make decisions based on intuition and ease rather than through extensive deliberation.

Three Strategies of Cognitive Miserliness

• Efficiency

  Our brain uses heuristics, or mental shortcuts, to simplify decision-making processes. This includes reliance on quick judgments and familiar patterns

Week 1: The Heart

Purpose of the Cardiovascular System

To provide adequate blood flow to all tissues/organs according to immediate needs.

Heart Contractions

• Systole: Periods of contraction
• Diastole: Periods of relaxation

Note: The atria contract simultaneously, followed by simultaneous ventricular contraction.

Blood Vessels

• Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart.
• Veins: Carry blood towards the heart.

Intrinsic Conduction System

1. Sinoatrial (SA) Node (Pacemaker): Generates impulses in the right atrial wall. Depolarizes 80-100 times per minute, modified by the autonomic nervous system to approximately 75 times per minute.
2. Atrioventricular (AV) Node: Impulses pause here for 0.1 seconds, allowing the atria to complete contraction. Generates impulses 40-60

Key Characteristics of AI Environments

• Fully Observable vs. Partially Observable: If an agent's sensors give it access to the complete state of the environment needed to choose an action, the environment is fully observable. Otherwise, it is partially observable.
• Deterministic vs. Stochastic: An environment is deterministic if the next state of the environment is completely determined by the current state (plus the results of your actions) and the agent's action. In a stochastic environment, there are multiple, unpredictable random outcomes. Luck is a serious component.
• Episodic vs. Sequential:
  • In an episodic environment, the agent's experience is divided into atomic episodes. Each episode consists of the agent perceiving and then performing a

Sustainable Cities

Today, more than half of humanity lives in cities, and this figure is expected to rise to 6 billion by 2050. This requires a rethink of urban planning and management, as rapid urbanization puts unprecedented pressure on the environment and public health. Sustainable cities must be environmentally, economically, socially, and politically healthy, both for the current population and for future generations. These cities are based on four pillars of sustainability:

• Environmental: concerns the ecological footprint, resource consumption, and pollution.
• Economic: concerns job opportunities and attracting investment.
• Social: focuses on quality of life, public health, and social integration.
• Institutional: includes democratic participation

Regency England: Society and Social Norms

Marriage and Inheritance Customs

At this time, the most influential sector was comprised of wealthy landowners, who often did not work but lived on large properties in the countryside. Family properties could not be divided; all land and income passed to the eldest son, while other siblings had to learn a profession. Daughters faced even greater complications; they could neither inherit land nor pursue a profession. Most remained at home, awaiting a suitable husband who could offer financial security.

Marriages at this time were often for convenience. Mothers sought wealthy, landed husbands for their daughters, while men, conversely, sought brides from affluent families. For example, in Pride and Prejudice,... Continue reading "Pride and Prejudice: Social Norms and Enduring Themes" »

Binary Code Chart: 1 to 150

This chart provides a comprehensive list of numbers from 1 to 150 and their corresponding binary representations. Binary code is the fundamental language of computers, using only two digits, 0 and 1, to represent all data.

Understanding Binary Numbers

Each digit in a binary number represents a power of 2, starting from 2⁰ (which is 1) on the rightmost digit and increasing by powers of 2 as you move to the left. For example, the binary number 101 represents:

• (1 * 2²) = 4
• (0 * 2¹) = 0
• (1 * 2⁰) = 1

Adding these values together: 4 + 0 + 1 = 5. Therefore, the binary number 101 is equivalent to the decimal number 5.

Binary Chart (1-150)

Here's the binary representation for numbers 1 through 150:

1 = 1, 26 = 11010, 51 = 110011,... Continue reading "Binary Code Chart: Numbers 1-150" »

The Ancien Régime

The Ancien Régime was a social, economic, and political system that was dominant in Europe during the Early Modern Age.

Absolute Monarchies

Absolute monarchies were the main form of government during the Ancien Régime. They emerged because of the social and economic crises that took place at the end of the Middle Ages. These crises weakened the position of the privileged classes and allowed monarchs to strengthen their own positions in society. This led to powerful monarchs exercising supreme authority.

Justification for such power was found in the Medieval theory of the divine right of kings. This theory proposed that monarchs derived their right to rule directly from God. Any opposition was therefore opposing the will of... Continue reading "Understanding the Ancien Régime: Absolutism and Society" »

Active Transport

Active transport moves substances across membranes from lower to higher concentration, against the concentration gradient. This process requires cellular energy (ATP) and a carrier protein.

The substance binds to the carrier protein's receptor site on one side of the membrane. ATP changes the protein's shape, releasing the substance on the other side. Active transport occurs only in living, respiring cells.

Factors influencing active transport:

• ATP Production: Increased ATP production increases active transport rate.
• Temperature and Oxygen: These affect respiration and ATP production, thus impacting transport rate.
• Mitochondria: Cells with more mitochondria have higher transport rates due to increased ATP production.
• Poisons: Respiratory

JavaScript Fundamentals Cheat Sheet

1. Variables

• let: Used to declare variables that are block-scoped. This means they only exist within the block they are defined in (e.g., inside a loop or an if statement).
• const: Used for constants, which are also block-scoped. Once assigned a value, they cannot be reassigned.
• var: Declares variables that are function-scoped. This can lead to issues with variable hoisting and is generally less preferred in modern JavaScript.

2. Functions

• Functions are reusable blocks of code designed to perform a specific task. They can take parameters (inputs) and can return values.
• Functions can be defined in different ways, including traditional function declarations and arrow functions, which provide a more concise syntax.

3.

Economic Planning in Developing Nations

What is the significance of economic planning for a developing country?

Barbara Wooton defines economic planning as "a system in which the market mechanism is deliberately manipulated with the object of producing a pattern other than that which would have resulted from its spontaneous activity."

Resource Use for National Benefit

Economic planning ensures optimal use of economic and human resources for national benefit. It increases output based on national priorities and reduces resource wastage.

Boosting Capital and Development

Capital formation is crucial in economic planning. Planned economies prioritize future growth over immediate needs, fostering rapid economic development.

Reducing Economic Inequality

Economic... Continue reading "Economic Planning: Vital for Developing Nations" »