Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Other courses

In ground wave propagation, radio waves travel along the surface of the Earth, following the curvature of the planet. Freq Range: 30 kHz to 300 kHz (Low Freq). Key Points: Travels along the ground. Strongly attenuated by terrain, trees, buildings, etc. Limited to short distances (few hundred km). APPS: AM radio (MW band). Navigation systems & military communication.In sky wave propagation, radio waves R transmitted towards the ionosphere, which reflects or refracts them back to Earth. Freq Range: 3 MHz to 30 MHz (High Freq). Key Points: Enables long-distance communication, even intercontinental. Depends on time of day, solar activity, & ionospheric conditions. Reflected by ionospheric layers (F-layer, E-layer, etc.). APPS: International... Continue reading "Understanding Radio Wave Propagation and Signal Processing" »

India's banking system is a well-structured and regulated system, primarily overseen by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). This document details its structure and evolution.

🏦 1. Regulatory Body: Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

• Established: 1935 (under the RBI Act, 1934)
• Role:
  • Regulates the issue and supply of currency.
  • Acts as the banker to the government and commercial banks.
  • Formulates and implements monetary policy.
  • Supervises and regulates financial institutions and markets.

🏛️ 2. Structure of the Banking System in India

A. Scheduled Banks

Listed in the Second Schedule of the RBI Act, 1934, they maintain a minimum reserve with the RBI.

i. Commercial Banks

These banks operate for profit and constitute the largest group in the Indian banking system.... Continue reading "India's Banking System: Structure, Evolution, and Future" »

Refining Formal Correspondence Templates

Formal Letter Structure Enhancement

Dear [Sir/Madam / Club Secretary / Title + Last Name],

I am writing in response to your recent email regarding [the event / issue / change].

Initial Acknowledgment and Concern

Firstly, thank you for keeping us informed. While I understand that [brief reason or circumstance], I was quite [disappointed / surprised / concerned] to hear that [brief description of the issue].

Proposing Solutions

Secondly, I would like to suggest that [alternative idea 1], as it might be a good solution. Additionally, [alternative idea 2] could help make the situation better for everyone involved.

Call to Action

Finally, I kindly request that you [mention any action: consider rescheduling / offer... Continue reading "Formal Correspondence: Improving Communication Templates" »

Introduction to Biomolecules

Living organisms are made up of thousands of biomolecules—molecules produced by living systems with distinct properties and functions favored through evolution. Small, simple molecules called micromolecules (or monomers), such as water, minerals, simple sugars, and nucleotides, serve as building blocks for larger macromolecules (or polymers) like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Biomolecules are classified into inorganic types (e.g., water, minerals, gases) and organic types (e.g., lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids). While biomolecules alone do not exhibit life, they organize into cells and are continuously synthesized and broken down to maintain and perpetuate life.

Water: The Essential

Essential English Vocabulary for Health & Fitness

Expand your English vocabulary with these key terms related to health, fitness, and everyday situations. Each word includes its Spanish translation and a clear English definition.

1. Avoid

• Evitar
• To stay away from something.

2. Break Up

• Terminar (una relación)
• To end a romantic relationship.

3. Catch a Cold

• Resfriarse
• To become sick with a cold.

4. Chase

• Perseguir
• To run after something or someone.

5. Come Down With

• Caer enfermo de
• To get an illness.

6. Cut Down On

• Reducir
• To use or do less of something.

7. Deal With

• Lidiar con
• To handle a problem or situation.

8. Disease

• Enfermedad
• An illness that affects the body.

9. Enable

• Permitir
• To make something possible.

10. Endurance

• Resistencia
• The ability to keep going without

Shudras and the Social Order: Ambedkar's Critique

In Chapter 4 of Annihilation of Caste, B.R. Ambedkar provides a historical and sociological critique of the status of Shudras within the Hindu caste hierarchy. He begins by questioning the traditional Varna system, which classifies society into four major groups—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras—arguing that this classification is not based on merit or morality, but on birth-based discrimination. Ambedkar highlights that the Shudras were originally a part of the Kshatriya class, and therefore not meant to occupy the lowest rank in the Varna system. According to him, the downgrading of Shudras occurred due to historical conflict with Brahmins. The Brahmins, who controlled religious... Continue reading "Indian Social Justice: Caste, Disability, and Adivasi Voices" »

Capacitor-Based Timing Circuit Operation

• Initially, the capacitor is uncharged.
• When Vcc is applied, an internal transistor is held off, and the output goes high.
• The external capacitor 'C' charges through resistors RA and RB with a time constant of (RA + RB)C. When the voltage across the capacitor reaches 1/3 Vcc, the trigger comparator provides a low output, which sets an internal flip-flop. This action typically causes the main output to go high and keeps the discharge transistor off.
• Subsequently, the capacitor voltage continues increasing towards Vcc. When it reaches 2/3 Vcc, the upper comparator's output becomes high. This logical state resets the flip-flop, causing the output to turn off (go low). Simultaneously, an internal transistor turns

Internet vs. World Wide Web (WWW)

• Internet: A global network infrastructure that uses TCP/IP to connect devices worldwide.
• WWW (World Wide Web): A multimedia service built upon the Internet, utilizing HTML, CSS, web browsers, and hyperlinks.
• Webpage: A single document accessible via the WWW. | Website: A collection or group of related webpages.

History and Evolution of the Internet

• 1960s: Development of ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network).
• 1983: Adoption of the TCP/IP protocol suite (developed by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn).
• 1989: Invention of the World Wide Web (WWW) by Tim Berners-Lee.
• 1992: Release of the Mosaic browser (developed at UIUC), popularizing the graphical web.

Understanding the Client-Server Model

• Client: Initiates a request

Review Vocabulary Sets A and B

Legal and Crime Terminology

Review Set A (R V A)

1. offenders
2. behind bars
3. charged with
4. convicted
5. go straight
6. concerned

Review Set B (R V B)

1. offenders
2. convicted
3. enforced
4. defy
5. concerned
6. comply

Environmental and Ecological Terminology

Review Set A (R V A)

1. vast
2. fossil fuel
3. waste
4. eco-friendly
5. hazardous
6. endangered
7. greenhouse effect
8. carbon footprint

Review Set B (R V B)

1. fossil fuels
2. layers
3. thawing
4. crop
5. hazardous
6. average
7. large-scale
8. waste

Phrasal Verbs and Idioms Related to Crime and Ethics

Review Set A (R V A)

1. crack down
2. turn a blind eye
3. caught red-handed
4. daylight robbery
5. objected to

Review Set B (R V B)

1. above-board
2. daylight robbery
3. caught red-handed
4. crack down
5. turn a blind eye

Prepositions and Collocations

Review Set A (R V A)

1. exposed to
2. get rid of
3. consist of
4. provide with
5. objected

TCP Reliable Transfer and Connection Management

TCP Reliable Transfer

1. Sequence Numbers

   • Each byte of data is assigned a sequence number. This number is used by the receiver to correctly order the data and ensure there are no missing segments.

2. Acknowledgements

   • The receiver sends back an ACK to the sender for the sequence number of the next expected byte. If the sender receives the ACK before its timer expires, it knows everything up to that byte was received correctly.

3. Retransmission

   • If the ACK is not received before the timer expires, the sender retransmits the data.

TCP Connection Management

Managing a TCP connection begins with a three-way handshake, which establishes a connection before any actual data is transmitted.

Steps in Three-Way Handshake

1. SYN

   • The