Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Music

Jarchas and Muwassahas: Mozarabic and Arabic Lyric Forms

The Jarchas are short ditties written in Mozarabic (a Romance dialect). They constitute the final quful (closing stanza or chorus) of a muwassaha.

The Muwassaha genre was cultivated by Arabic and Hebrew poets in Al-Andalus during the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries. It is structured by a Bayt (verse) and a Quful (chorus). The main body of the muwassaha is written in the author's literary language, serving as a presentation that leads to the Jarcha, which acts as the termination in the Mozarabic Romance dialect.

Characteristics of Traditional Lyric Compositions

The fundamental characteristic of all original traditional lyric compositions is brevity and intensity. Intensity is achieved through... Continue reading "Medieval Iberian Lyric Poetry: Jarchas, Cantigas, and Villancicos" »

Romanticism in Europe: First Half 19th Century

Key Features

• Individualism: Focus on the self.
• Rebellion: Spirit of freedom, breaking rules.
• Idealism: Emphasis on love, honor, friendship.
• Irrationalism: Focus on sentiments and passion.
• Evasion and Exoticism: Interest in distant lands (space) and the Middle Ages (time).
• Exalted Rhetoric: Grandiloquent language.
• Originality.

Romantic Poetry

Expresses love, melancholy, sadness, disappointment, dreams, and the exaltation of solitude.

Features:

• Grandiloquent language.
• Use of classical forms (silva, octave, quatrain) and some new ones.
• Polymetry (use of various meters).
• Common themes: love, freedom, death, nature, the past.

Narrative poetry was cultivated with compositions in verse, often historical, legendary, allegorical,... Continue reading "European Romanticism: Literature and Key Figures" »

Types of Zarzuela: Grande and Chica

The zarzuela in three or two acts is known as Zarzuela Grande. The one-act zarzuelas are called Zarzuela Chica, a name established after 1880 as Género Chico. The género bufo is a related form but is considered less important.

Zarzuela Grande

The model conforms to works like Jugar con fuego or El barberillo de Lavapiés and is defined by the following characteristics:

• It typically has three acts, though it can also have two and, rarely, four.
• Each act is preceded by a prelude.
• This prelude is followed by the entrance of a large choir, which starts almost every act.
• A three-act zarzuela is composed of 15 or 16 musical numbers, with 5 or 6 per act.
• These numbers are polysectional.
• There is a predominance of sung text

Post-Romanticism: An Overview

The post-Romanticism movement emerged in the latter half of the nineteenth century as a reaction to Romanticism, flourishing particularly in France.

Writers and artists rebelled against bourgeois lifestyles, demanding freedom and individuality.

Post-Romantic Poetry

In poetry, unlike novels and drama which embraced realism, a romantic spirit persisted. However, the focus shifted from narrative to lyricism, becoming more personal and intimate. Rhetoric decreased while lyricism increased, with love and passion for the world as prominent themes. Metrics evolved, exploring new sounds and embracing a plurality of poetic ideas.

Post-Romantic poetry represents a transition, a conflict between Romanticism and Realism. Its proponents... Continue reading "Post-Romanticism: A Transition from Romanticism to Realism" »

Toledo School of Translators

Founded in the twelfth century, the School of Translators used the vernacular as a channel of communication between languages. Thanks to King Alfonso X, this institution gave Castilian the status of a cultural language.

Early Theatrical Forms

Momos

From the Latin MOMUS, a momo was a theatrical piece within a larger play. It emphasized the text to amuse the nobility in a hall setting and is considered a forerunner of pantomime.

Tropes

Tropes were short texts sung in Latin by priests, interpolated as dialogue in religious celebrations. They eventually transitioned from Latin into Castilian.

Juan del Encina and His Work

Juan del Encina, considered the father of Spanish theater, wrote an eclogue in which he used the Sayagués... Continue reading "Spanish Literary History: Middle Ages to Baroque" »

An Art in Permanent Change

The origins of Western art music are sought in the Middle Ages. This era was dominated by a strong religious influence. As a result, most of the music we preserve from this period consists of medieval religious manifestations, although secular music was also present.

Early Music Periods

We refer to ancient music as the production that extends from the Middle Ages until well into the eighteenth century. We can distinguish several periods:

• Medieval (up to the fourteenth century)
• Renaissance (15th and 16th centuries)
• Baroque (17th and 18th centuries)

Most composers during this time devoted themselves to religious music. One of the most significant composers was Johann Sebastian Bach. The influence of his music extends to our... Continue reading "Western Art Music: Origins and Evolution" »

Renaissance Motets and Masses

Evolution of Polyphony

Early Motets

Motet styles varied depending on the season. Isorhythmic motets, less common in later years, were prominent in the early period. In homophonic motets, all voices are equal. The imitative motet became the most important and innovative style.

Masses

Masses shared similarities with motets. Several masses, like the L'homme armé Mass and the L'homme armé Mass with isorhythm in the upper voice, were based on the popular tune "L'homme armé." Another example is the Missa Hercules dux Ferrariae, where the cantus firmus is derived from an acronym of the title.

Secular Music

Secular music production flourished in France and Italy. In Italy, works were sometimes attributed to the pseudonym... Continue reading "Renaissance Motets and Masses: Evolution of Polyphony" »

Oceanian Music

Maori Music

Maori music is primarily vocal, featuring love stories and lullabies. Traditional instruments are made from wood, bone, stone, shells, and animal hides. Percussion instruments are common, including wind instruments. Modern instruments like the guitar and ukulele have also been adopted.

Australian Aboriginal Music

Aboriginal songs serve as a vital link to the spiritual realm. Instruments are few and rudimentary, with the didgeridoo being the most recognizable.

Indonesian and Malaysian Music

The gamelan is a prominent instrumental ensemble in these cultures, featuring up to 30 musicians playing xylophones, metallophones, drums, and gongs.

Classical Music (18th Century)

Features

Classical music is characterized by clarity, balance,... Continue reading "Oceanian, Classical, Romani, and Romantic Music" »

Baroque Literature

The Baroque was a cultural movement that developed in Spain and throughout Europe in the 17th century.

Political and religious crises, the Spanish empire ravaged by hunger and military misery. Diderot begins by contrasting the decadent splendor of literature and arts.

The rise of beauty, this class impulse defended their privileges and their values: absolute monarchy, obsession with purity of blood, social stagnation, and a return to traditional religiosity. This era is reflected in theater.

A disillusioned vision of existence, this pessimistic conception of life was manifested in literature in the constant presence of subjects such as death and the transience of life and its inconsistency, expressed in terms of topics such as... Continue reading "Baroque and Renaissance Literature: Themes and Styles" »

The Baroque Era (1600-1750)

The Baroque cultural movement developed between 1600 and 1750. The Baroque era cultivated a taste for adornment, dissonance, and motion.

Vocal Innovations and Monteverdi's Influence

Thanks to the composer Monteverdi, texts were set with accompanying instrumental parts, leading the development of new musical forms. This era reinforced the hierarchy of voices, where the top or acute voice played the principal melody. High-pitched voices tended to be sung by boys and castrati, men who retained the high vocal tessitura of a boy's voice.

Baroque Vocal Genres

Opera

Opera is a scenic genre that sets a text or libretto of a secular character.

• Overture: An orchestral piece that introduces the performance.
• Recitative: A style of song,