Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Medicine & Health

Cultural Considerations in Drug Therapy

• Ethnopharmacology studies how genetic and cultural factors influence drug metabolism and responses.
• Cultural beliefs can affect medication adherence and acceptance of alternative therapies.
• Language barriers may hinder effective communication about medications; strategies include using interpreters and clear labeling.

Age-Specific Medication Considerations

• Pediatric patients may require dosing adjustments due to immature organ function and higher risk of toxicity.
• Geriatric patients often experience polypharmacy, necessitating careful monitoring for drug interactions and side effects.
• Pregnancy and breastfeeding considerations include avoiding teratogenic drugs and understanding drug transfer into breast milk.

Simple Past Tense: Structure and Uses

Affirmative Form

• I / You / He / She / It / We / They + Past Simple Verb

Negative Form

• I / You / He / She / It / We / They + did not (didn't) + infinitive (without 'to')

Interrogative Form

• Did + I / You / He / She / It / We / They + infinitive (without 'to')?

Verb Rules for Simple Past

• Regular verbs: Add -ed to the base form.
• Irregular verbs: Use the second column of irregular verb lists (past simple form).

Uses of the Simple Past

• Actions completed in the past at a specific time.
• A series of actions that happened in the past (sequential events).
• Past states or habits.

Past Continuous Tense: Structure and Uses

Affirmative Form

• I / He / She / It + was + verb-ing
• We / You / They + were + verb-ing

Negative Form

• I / He / She /

Essential English Vocabulary

Sports Venues & Equipment

• Badminton Court = Pista de bàdminton
• Boxing Ring = Ring de boxa
• Diving Board = Trampolí de piscina
• Golf Course = Camp de golf
• Ice Rink = Pista de gel
• Martial Arts Gym = Gimnàs d'arts marcials
• Race Course = Hipòdrom / Pista de curses
• Rugby Pitch = Camp de rugbi
• Ski Slope = Pista d'esquí

Sports Equipment

• Ball
• Boots
• Clubs
• Gloves
• Goggles
• Horses (for equestrian sports)
• Racket
• Skates
• Snow (for skiing/snowboarding)
• Water (for water sports)

Crime & Justice Vocabulary

• Prison Sentence = Sentència de presó
• Millionaire = Milionari
• Murders = Assassinats
• Hostage = Ostatge
• Thief = Lladre
• Commit (a crime) = Cometre (un crim)
• Crime = Crim
• Arrest = Arrestar
• Forge = Falsificar
• Hijack = Segrestar (vehicle)
• Kidnap = Segrestar

Porcelain Laminate Veneers: Indications and Contraindications

Indications:

1. Used on slightly/mildly enlarged teeth
2. Traditionally indicated in aesthetic areas where a single crown composite resin veneer would be used
3. To correct diastemas
4. Masking of discolored/stained teeth
5. Repairing enamel defects

Contraindications:

1. Cannot be waxed on short clinical crowns
2. Not suitable for patients with parafunctional habits (e.g., bruxism)
3. Teeth with insufficient enamel for adequate retention
4. Teeth with large restorations or endodontically treated teeth with little remaining structure
5. Patients with tooth wear due to bruxism

Tooth Remineralization: Techniques, Materials, and Concepts

Techniques:

Hand excavation is preferred to preserve as much tissue as possible for remineralization.... Continue reading "Porcelain Veneers, Tooth Remineralization, and Biocompatibility" »

Anti-Inflammatory Agents: NSAIDs

Anti-inflammatory agents are a class of medicines designed to reduce pain, swelling, and fever without causing drowsiness. They are widely recognized as Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs), commonly used for managing minor pain, edema, and tissue damage associated with inflammatory joint diseases.

Mechanism of Action

• NSAIDs primarily function by blocking cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes. These enzymes are responsible for producing prostaglandins, which are compounds that promote inflammation, pain, and fever. By inhibiting COX enzymes, NSAIDs effectively reduce these symptoms.

Common NSAID Drugs

• Sodium Salicylate
• Aspirin
• Mefenamic Acid
• Meclofenamate
• Indomethacin
• Sulindac
• Tolmetin
• Zomepirac
• Diclofenac
• Ketorolac
• Ibuprofen
• Naproxen
• Piroxicam

Related

Heart Failure: Mechanism and Comprehensive Management

Defining Heart Failure (HF)

Heart failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome characterized by the heart's inability to pump sufficient blood to meet the metabolic needs of the body. It results from structural or functional cardiac disorders that impair the ability of the ventricles to fill with or eject blood.

Pathophysiology of Heart Failure

Classification of Heart Failure

Heart failure can be broadly classified based on the left ventricular ejection fraction (EF):

1. Systolic Heart Failure (HFrEF)

Also known as HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF).

• The left ventricle loses its ability to contract normally, leading to decreased ejection of blood (EF < 40%).
• Common causes include: ischemic heart

Nouns: From Old English to Middle English

Gender Evolution in Nouns

The shift from grammatical gender, as in Old English (OE), to natural gender was a significant change. OE had three genders (feminine, masculine, neuter). In Middle English (ME), there was a reclassification of originally masculine and feminine inanimate nouns as neuter.

Plural Markers and Inflectional Changes

• -as: A strong masculine noun ending in OE, which developed into the Present Day English (PDE) -s plural marker.
• -an: A weak noun ending in OE, which developed into the PDE -en plural marker (e.g., oxen).
• R-plurals: Developed into two markers: -en and -r.
• O/E Vowel Umlaut: A process of vowel change in the root.

In ME, five main plural markers emerged: zero, root vowel change (... Continue reading "English Grammar Evolution: Old to Middle English Transformations" »

Respiratory System Basics

Respiratory Key Terms

• Dyspnea: Difficulty breathing
• Orthopnea: Difficulty breathing when lying flat
• Tachypnea: Abnormally fast breathing
• Bradypnea: Abnormally slow breathing
• Hemoptysis: Coughing up blood
• Hypoxia: Tissue oxygen deficiency
• Clubbing: Fingertip rounding due to chronic hypoxia
• Barrel chest: Increased chest diameter often from emphysema
• Cyanosis: Bluish skin or mucous membrane discoloration from low oxygen
• Rales/Crackles: Abnormal lung sounds indicating fluid
• Wheezing: High-pitched whistling from narrowed airways
• Rhonchi: Low-pitched rattling sounds (often due to secretions)
• Productive cough: Cough producing mucus or sputum
• Hypertonia: Increased muscle tone causing stiffness
• Hypotonia: Decreased muscle tone making muscles

Pharmacology Fundamentals

Pharmacokinetics: What the Body Does to the Drug

Phases:

1. Absorption – How a drug enters the bloodstream

2. Distribution – How a drug travels through the body

3. Metabolism – How a drug is broken down (mainly in the liver)

4. Excretion – How a drug leaves the body (mainly through the kidneys)

🧠 Memory Trick: ADME — Absorb, Deliver, Metabolize, Exit

Pharmacodynamics: What the Drug Does to the Body

• Describes how a drug works at the target site

• Involves receptor binding, enzyme interactions, and therapeutic vs. side effects

Examples:

• Beta blockers bind to beta receptors → slow heart rate

• Insulin binds to insulin receptors → lowers blood sugar

Drug Release Types: ER, IR, SR, XL, CR