Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

Formal Texts: Definition and Examples

A formal text, such as a request, is written to a person in a managerial position of importance within an institution or government agency. A certificate is a document that officially recognizes a fact. The record (minutes) reflects what was discussed or agreed upon at a meeting. A report is a statement of facts or data on the status of an issue.

Elements of the Castilian Language Lexicon

The lexicon is the set of words in a language's vocabulary. Depending on their origin, the lexicon can be comprised of:

• Heritage: Words from Latin present in the language since its origins.
• Learned words: Words from Latin and Greek introduced into Castilian after the language's formation. Example: ocular (from oculus).
• Doublet:

The 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries marked a period of significant decline for Galician literature, often referred to as the 'Dark Centuries.' During this time, the Galician language was limited almost exclusively to oral use, losing much of its written application.

Historical Context: The Dark Centuries

Political Landscape and Language Suppression

At the end of the 15th century, the struggle for the Castilian crown between Joanna la Beltraneja and Isabella the Catholic divided the nobility into two factions: secular and ecclesiastical. This political status quo was maintained through the 17th century and further strengthened in the 18th century with the Bourbon dynasty, leading to the imposition of Spanish in all official spheres of life.

Cultural

Galician Prose: Early 20th Century

The creation in 1916 of the first Brotherhood of Speech, in Corunna, by Antón Vilar Ponte, marks the beginning of a new era of splendor in Galician literature. Galician literature opened up to genres other than poetry, which had been predominant, embracing narrative and theater, as well as essays, scientific research, and political discourse.

The intellectuals of the Brotherhoods published the magazine Our Land, created publishing houses such as Céltiga or Home, and strengthened nationalist ideology, based not so much on past history, but on language and culture, which they consciously defended and developed in their articles, essays, and speeches. Among the prose writers of the Brotherhoods, Joseph East Meis... Continue reading "Galician Prose in the Early 20th Century: Brotherhoods and Generation We" »

SE Usage in Spanish: Pronominal and Non-Pronominal

SE as a Pronoun with Direct or Indirect Object Function

1. SE as a Personal Pronoun

SE can substitute for him, her, it, or them when used as an indirect object pronoun alongside a direct object pronoun that begins with the letter "L" (lo, la, los, las).

Example: Vicente (Indirect Object) gave her a book. → Vicente (Indirect Object) told her about it (Direct Object).

2. SE as a Reflexive Pronoun

In reflexive constructions, the action of the subject is performed upon the subject itself. If a noun phrase (NP) already fulfills the role of the direct object, SE functions as an indirect object. Otherwise, SE acts as the direct object.

Examples:

• Eduardo (Direct Object) shaves himself.
• Margarita (Indirect

Antonio Machado

Soledades, Galerías y Otros Poemas

Antonio Machado's lyrical production, the most important poet of the Generation of '98, includes Soledades, Galerías y Otros Poemas. Published in 1903 under the name Soledades, it was revised, rewritten, and reissued in 1907. In it, Machado aligns traditional Castilian poetry with Romantic poets and Modernism (both in its lexicon and by the artificial pose of sighing in the gardens, made fashionable by Verlaine), going beyond the Modernist aesthetic.

Themes

The work raises two somewhat contradictory imperatives: essentiality and temporality. We see a subjectivity that seeks to identify with readers, universalized, and meditate on the passage of time and the trail it leaves in your life. The focus... Continue reading "Antonio Machado: Life and Literary Works" »

The Evolution of Languages in Spain

Articulation:

• Bilabial: p, b, m
• Labiodental: f
• Interdental: z
• Dental: t, d
• Alveolar: s, l, r, n
• Palatal: c
• Velar: k, g, j

Articulatory Section Modification:

• Occlusive: p, b, t, d, k, g
• Fricatives: f, z, s, y, j
• Affricates: c
• Lateral: L
• Vibrant: r
• Nasal: n, m

Vowel Sounds:

• Central, Open: a
• Anterior, Middle: e
• Above, Closed: i
• Later, Media: o
• Back, Close: o

Sonority:

• Sonorous: b, d, g, m, n, l, r
• Deaf: k, c, d, f, j, p, s, t, z

1. Pre-Roman Languages

Before the advent of different languages, Latin was spoken in the Iberian Peninsula. With the invasions came different languages. With Romanization, these languages, except Euskera (Basque), were disappearing.

2. Romanization Process

A process of Romanization arose. When the Romans arrived,... Continue reading "Evolution of Languages in Spain: A Historical Perspective" »

Baroque Comedy: Key Features

The Golden Age of Spanish Theater

The Golden Age of Spanish literature is synonymous with "play." Lope de Vega, a central figure of this era, championed the principle of artistic freedom. He refused to submit to the rigid rules of classical theater and rejected the three dramatic unities (time, place, and action).

• Events could unfold in different times and places.
• Plays were divided into three acts, with time jumps between acts.

Diverse Themes and Conflicts

Baroque comedies drew inspiration from various sources, including literary tradition, Spanish or universal history, the lives of saints, and social customs. Most conflicts revolved around two central themes:

• Love: The primary catalyst for dramatic tension.
• Honor: Individuals

Machado and Lorca: A Comparative Analysis

Antonio Machado: Lyricism and Modernist Expression

Machado: We are presented with a lyrical composition expressing the author's subjective world, encompassing feelings, sensations, and personal expressions. This expression is structured in verse, incorporating rhyme and rhythmic features. (Characterization as a literary genre, subgenre, is: verse or prose). The author is Antonio Machado, known for his work....

General Characteristics of Modernism in Machado's Work:

• Beauty as an aesthetic and vital principle: The poet aims to transform life into art.
• Creation of a literature of the senses.
• Revival of forms like the Alexandrian or eneasílabo verse.
• Embrace of the bizarre as beautiful.
• Exploration of melancholy

Modern Catalan Literature: 16th to 18th Centuries

Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, Catalan literature experienced negative changes in its evolution. This period led to a gradual loss of national freedoms under increasingly centralized rule.

The Duality of Catalan Literature (16th–18th C.)

A significant duality occurred between serious literature and popular literature:

• Serious Literature: Experienced a major setback. However, Catalan literature of these centuries reflects the same major periods found across Europe.
• Popular Literature: Maintained its strength because the Catalan language remained the only one spoken and heard, keeping it close to the Catalan people.

Serious Literature Movements

The three main movements of this stage... Continue reading "Literary Movements in Catalan Culture (16th–18th Century)" »

The Purpose of Royal Chronicles

The chronicles of the kings were dictated by the monarchs themselves. Their primary goal was **propaganda**: showing readers and listeners the great deeds of the monarchs, justifying military actions and policies, and serving as an example of nobility and heroism.

Jordi de Sant Jordi: Poetic Language and the Poem "Prisoner"

Jordi de Sant Jordi was a poet of love poetry, and his songs of farewell and enyorament (longing) are distinguished by their sensitivity and melancholy. The poem "Prisoner" presents a realistic and personal character, marking a departure from traditional troubadouresque topics.

The Two Major Italian Poets

Dante Alighieri and Petrarch.

Ausias March: Poet-Philosopher and Love Philosophy

The concept... Continue reading "Catalan Literary Figures: March, Metge, and the Rise of Humanism" »