Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

Cicero's Works

Treaties of Rhetoric

Cicero wrote The Speaker, a three-book work featuring Licinius Crassus and Mark Antony, renowned speakers of the 2nd century BC. Through these characters and two others, Cicero explains the qualities of a good orator. The book proposes that all speeches should be divided into distinct parts:

• Exordium: The introduction of the topic, where the speaker aims to gain public sympathy.
• Exposition or Narration: Presentation of the facts relevant to the speech.
• Argumentation: The speaker provides arguments to justify their intervention or attack the opponent.
• Conclusion or Peroration: A final summary where the speaker reiterates their main points and seeks to persuade the audience.

Cicero also wrote several dialogues, notably... Continue reading "Cicero's Works: Rhetoric, Politics, Philosophy, and More" »

The Roman Republic: Government and Structure

The Roman Republic was characterized by a republican system of government. Citizens elected a number of magistrates responsible for different aspects of the city's organization and functioning. This system included:

Citizen Assemblies (Comitia)

• Comitia Curiata: Dating back to the monarchical era.
• Comitia Centuriata: Based on the division of citizens into 193 centuries (from the time of Servius Tullius). This assembly elected senior magistrates and was involved in matters of peace and war.
• Comitia Tributa: Based on the grouping of citizens into 35 tribes. This assembly elected lower magistrates and military tribunes.

Senior Magistrates

Senior magistrates shared three key characteristics: annuity, collegiality,... Continue reading "Roman Republic Government & Italica's History" »

Spanish Theater in the Early 20th Century

Early 20th-century Europe was characterized by a genuine renewal in both theatrical themes and their dramatic treatment. However, the situation in Spain differed significantly, where a clear renewal was achieved by only a few authors. The reasons for this disparity included:

• Producers were unwilling to invest in works that were not guaranteed success.
• Actors demanded works written specifically for their talents, preferring the declamatory style of 19th-century high comedy.
• The public wanted to see their own problems reflected in the works.

1. Modern Drama

This genre unsuccessfully attempted to revive the ideals of Golden Age drama, especially regarding historical themes. Scenery featured elaborate stage effects... Continue reading "Spanish Theater Renewal: Early 20th Century Dramatists" »

Eisner: A Chivalric Author

Eisner was born in Valencia in 1410 and died in 1465. A noble knight of his time, he was respected by masters in the exercise of arms. He was a great reader and was well-informed of the developments of the time. He brought a cheerful and fun tone to his work, introducing humor, irony, and caricature into chivalric novels. He is the author of the most important novel in the history of Catalan literature. Years later, Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes would ridicule and mock chivalric novels.

Curial e Guelph: A Hero's Journey

This is a story of love and arms. The novel presents the process of a hero's development, from humble origins until he achieves the recognition, fame, and honor that belong to a knight. Curial is... Continue reading "The Rise of the Catalan Chivalric Novel" »

Key Catalan Authors and Valencian Culture

Joan Francesc Mira (Valencia, 1939) is the author of several novels and numerous studies in anthropology. Notable works include The Valencian Land (1978), Culture, Language, Nation (1987), and Critique of Pure Nation (1984), which reflects on the concept of nation, the Valencian national character, and its consequences.

Gustavus Munoz (Valencia, 1951) is an economist, essayist, and translator. He is the chief of the magazine and coordinator of the trial Espill magazine characters. He has published essays such as Speeches: Between Culture and Politics (1998), At the Beginning of a Century: A Diary of Reflections (2002), and Heritage of an Era (2006).

Isabel-Clara Simó (Alcoy, 1943) is an author of several... Continue reading "Key Catalan Authors: Insights into Valencian Culture" »

Joan Salvat-Papasseit (1894-1924)

Joan Salvat-Papasseit was born into a humble, proletarian family. He theorized about what kind of poet he wanted to be and created magazines. He was a supporter of last-minute avant-gardism and wrote what he called futurist manifestos, but they were nothing more than a reaction to the Noucentista poetry of his time. Very close to the avant-garde in his first books of poems, such as "Poems in Hertz Waves" and "Irradiator, Harbor, and Seagulls," he delighted in the new expressive resources and the very communicative effectiveness he obtained: calligrams, words of freedom, and Cubist composition. But increasingly, he chose a poem that included the social and the loving. He knew how to extract the lyrical and sensual.... Continue reading "Catalan Poets and Avant-Garde Movements: A Deep Dive" »

Understanding Scientific Description

The scientific description rigorously reports the characteristic features of objects, beings, phenomena, and processes.

Key Features of Scientific Description

• Clarity and Accuracy: Ensures information is precise and easy to understand.
• Objectivity: Presents reality without bias, avoiding personal opinions or interpretations.
• Rigor and Verifiability: Features must be updated and verifiable through empirical evidence.

Types of Scientific Description

• Static: Presents a fixed and stable reality.
• Dynamic: Presents a phenomenon in process or evolution.

Essential Grammar Concepts

The Subject in Sentences

The subject is a function of the nominal group. It always agrees with the verb in number and person.

Impersonal Sentences

Features of Baroque Theater

Baroque theater emphasized several key elements:

• Acts: Plays were structured with three, four, or five acts, without a fixed form.
• Language and Versification: Verse was used exclusively as a form of dramatic expression, discarding prose.
• The Dramatic Unities: (Time, Place, Action). According to Lope de Vega, the action should not be limited to twenty-four hours in one place, but to its own space and time.
• The Mix of Comedy and Tragedy: Works blended comedy and tragedy, mirroring real life.
• Decorum: Respect for poetic decorum was linked to the desire for naturalness, so each character must act and speak as befits their class.

Characters

• The King: Who may be old and wise, or young and arrogant.
• The Powerful: Noble and superb,

Machado's Poetic Homage to Lorca's Final Moments

This analysis focuses on Antonio Machado's poignant poem dedicated to Federico García Lorca, which vividly portrays Lorca's final days before his execution and his profound emotions. Machado's work serves as a powerful lament for the tragic loss of a fellow poet and friend.

Poem's Narrative and Core Themes

The poem unfolds Lorca's final moments with striking imagery and emotional depth:

• The first four lines describe Lorca's journey through the village with soldiers.
• The subsequent two lines recount his execution at dawn.
• Lines seven through ten explore the suffering of the soldiers who carried out the act.
• Lines eleven to fourteen emphasize that Lorca was killed in his beloved home city, Granada.
• Verses

Contemporary Spanish Poetry

Miguel Hernández (Centenary)

Miguel Hernández serves as a bridge between the Generation of 27 and war poetry. This year marks the centenary of his death. His work signifies a return to humanistic themes, contrasting the dehumanized art theories prevalent in the twenties and among some avant-garde movements of '27.

His key works include:

• The Ray Which Never Ceases (sonnets)
• Wind Village (social issues, political commitment)
• Songbook and Ballads of Absences (prison poems: love, family, nostalgia, war)

Poetry of the 40s

Two main trends emerged:

Classical or Established Poetry

Emphasized both form (classic verse, sonnets, pentameter) and themes (religious sentiment, love, nature). Some poets also incorporated avant-garde forms.... Continue reading "Spanish Poetry: From Miguel Hernández to the 80s" »