Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

History of Rome

The primitive people of the Italic Peninsula were the Ligurians. These, in turn, were dominated by the Etruscans.

These people remained politically in the peninsula until 509 BC in the form of a monarchy. There were seven Etruscan kings, the last being Tarquin "the Proud".

The end of the monarchy came about without revolution or bloodshed. During the Etruscan monarchy, Rome was founded around seven hills: Capitoline, Celio, Esquiline, Aventine, Quirinal, Viminal, and Palatine (Rome was founded on the Palatine).

Foundation of Rome

1. Legend of Romulus & Remus.
2. Political, economic & social factors.

The triumph of the social revolution was led by the Patricians (the upper class, who were the richest). They controlled political power... Continue reading "Ancient Rome: From Legend to Republic" »

Spanish Romance (14th Century)

1. Definition

The term "romance" refers to vernacular compositions, distinct from Latin texts. These lyrical narratives were originally sung, composed of indefinite series of eight-syllable lines with assonant rhymes in even-numbered lines, while odd-numbered lines remain unrhymed. This ballad meter is reminiscent of epics, with each verse of romance corresponding to a hemistich of song. These compositions share characteristics with traditional lyrical ballads transmitted orally, often with variations. They are considered anonymous not necessarily because the author's name is unknown, but because they belong to a popular tradition, with each reciter adapting them. Romance is a hybrid genre, blending elements... Continue reading "Spanish Romance of the 14th Century: A Deep Dive" »

Diachronic Varieties: Causes of Linguistic Change in the Iberian Peninsula

Pre-Roman Hispania

Before the arrival of the Romans, diverse languages were spoken on the peninsula, including Celtic, Iberian, and Basque. All except Basque disappeared after the expansion of Latin. Currently, some remnants of these languages are preserved (e.g., stream, pond, Segovia).

The Roman Empire

In 218 BC, Roman forces landed in Ampurias and, over two centuries, completed the conquest of the peninsula. With them came the use of Latin, which marked the beginning of the linguistic unity of Spain.

The Germanic Invasions

The 5th century corresponds to the fall of the Roman Empire. Peoples like the Suebi, Vandals, Alans, and Visigoths invaded the Iberian Peninsula and... Continue reading "Evolution of Languages in the Iberian Peninsula" »

The Spanish Generation of '27

A Poetic Renaissance

The Generation of '27, a prominent group of Spanish writers, emerged around 1927, coinciding with the tercentenary of Baroque poet Luis de Góngora's death. These writers, including Miguel Hernández, embraced Góngora's complex poetic style (culteranismo), which had been criticized in the 19th century. The tercentenary celebrations, including conferences and tributes at the University of Seville, served as a catalyst for the group's formation.

A literary generation comprises writers born around the same time, influenced by similar events, and sharing comparable perspectives on contemporary issues.

Defining the Generation of '27

• A Collective of Writers: Key figures include Pedro Salinas, Jorge

The Spanish Generation of '98

Author: Antonio Machado (1875-1939) wrote prose and drama, stressing his role as a poet. Initially modernist (Soledades, Galerías y Otros Poemas, 1907), his modernism is intimate, with existential angst as a prominent theme. His works feature decadent landscapes (fountains, gardens) and symbolism (late treadmill).

Campos de Castilla (1912) addresses political and social issues, using the Castilian landscape, its inhabitants, and its history to critique Spanish conduct (envy of those who don't work, praise for those who strive). Other poems lament his wife's death and include philosophical reflections.

Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1946) wrote essays, novels, poetry, and drama.

Topics Cultivated:

• Spain's backwardness in social,

Spanish Narrative: 1930s to 1960s

The 1930s: Rehumanization and Exile

The novels of the 1930s, much like poetry, moved towards rehumanization and social commitment, contrasting with the dehumanization of the 1920s. Authors like Francisco Ayala and Rosa Chacel championed this trend. Their support for the Republic led to their exile after the war, and their work, developed outside Spain, often emphasized themes of war.

The Early Post-War Years

The cultural landscape in 1939 was bleak. Many writers were in exile, and censorship heavily restricted literary expression, making explicit denunciation impossible. Exceptional figures like Torrente Ballester, Camilo José Cela, Carmen Laforet, and Miguel Delibes emerged in the 1940s, embodying two main... Continue reading "Spanish Narrative Evolution: 1930s to 1960s" »

Generation of '98 and Antonio Machado

While other authors of the Generation of '98, such as Unamuno, also cultivated poetry, Antonio Machado is often seen as the representative poet of the Generation. However, his relationship with the group was complex; some consider him an epigonal member, as the theme of Spain only prominently features in his work starting with Campos de Castilla. His training and early work align more closely with Modernism.

Machado's poetic style is notable for its economy of expression: concise, refined, sober, and conceptually dense. In this aspect, he converges with other artists of his time and generation who professed an open anti-rhetoricism. Regarding his works, we can cite:

• Soledades (1903), revised and expanded in

Life, Death, and Love in Miguel Hernández

To sum up Miguel Hernández's poetry, one could qualify it as love poetry. No poem falls outside the meaning of love: nature, women, sons, friends, the people, or life itself. We can distinguish several approaches: sexual awakening, love, pain, love-hate, hope...

Furthermore, Miguel Hernández's poetry is a poetry of experience. Indeed, the poetic world is defined by love and death, intertwined with life. These are the three main themes, or variants of the same theme: love. Life and death are joined in two ways:

1. In the existential sense, man is a being born to die.
2. In the sense of solidarity of death easily embraced.

Life definitely embraces death in the late poems and ballads of Cancionero y Romancero

The Sixties: Experimental Fiction

Novelists felt the need to seek new formulas, more complex approaches, and greater attention to literary language. Two main factors contributed to this shift in literature:

• The influence of foreign novelists of the century: Marcel Proust (French), Franz Kafka (Czech-German), James Joyce (Irish), and William Faulkner (American).
• The discovery of the American novel of the moment, with titles such as Hopscotch (1963) by Julio Cortázar, La Ciudad y los Perros (1963) by Mario Vargas Llosa, or One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967) by Gabriel García Márquez, and authors of previous generations such as the Argentine Jorge Luis Borges, Alejo Carpentier (Cuban), and Juan Rulfo (Mexican).

Authors of the Experimental Narrative

The... Continue reading "Spanish Experimental Fiction: Authors and Trends" »