Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

The Evolution of Roman Oratory

Introduction to Public Speaking in Rome

Oratory, the art of public speaking, requires a political system that respects freedom of expression. During the Republic, therefore, the speech was held in high esteem. In contrast, under the Empire, freedom of speech was curtailed, and oratory lost its political importance, being taught only theoretically in the schools of rhetoric.

Republican Oratory: The Age of Cicero

With Cicero, oratory reached its highest elevation, both practically and theoretically. Living during the final years of the Republic, his abilities allowed him to reach the highest magistracies. He left us perfect speeches in which the Latin language displayed all its splendor and purity.

Cicero's Rhetorical

Miguel Hernandez: Social and Political Commitment

Miguel Hernandez was socially and politically committed in his life, his poetry, and his plays, but we will focus primarily on his poetry.

Hernandez's Theater of War

Regarding his dramatic work, although he wrote other works, Theater of War, written in prose, lacks dramatic entity and could be considered propaganda speeches and an invitation to fight.

Poetry Collections with Military Themes

In the poetry of Miguel Hernandez, his poetry collections include military themes: Wind of the People, Man Stalks, and, in some ways, Songbook and Ballads of Absences.

Commitment Beyond Verse

Miguel Hernandez's commitment goes beyond his verse; it is part of his life. His poems are a reflection of his life convictions.... Continue reading "Social and Political Themes in the Poetry of Miguel Hernandez" »

Features and Evolution of Latin Lyric Poetry

Latin lyric poetry began to gain relevance as a literary genre in the second century BC, coinciding with the decline of Theatre and Epic. It shows a clear influence from Greek poetry, especially the Alexandrian lyric poets.

This shift involved abandoning great epic poems and moving toward short compositions of an individual character, reflecting intense feelings (from love to hate) and focusing carefully on the world of small, everyday things.

There was a progression toward individualism, privacy, intimacy, and subjectivity, though this development did not mean the abandonment of the old metrical forms.

The Poetae Novi: Precursors to Elegy

The predecessors of the great elegiac lyric poets were the so-... Continue reading "Latin Lyric Poetry: Origins, Features, and the Rise of Roman Elegy" »

Understanding English Pronouns and Their Usage

A Noun Phrase (NP) typically has a noun as its core. Infinitives and pronouns can also serve as the core of a Noun Phrase.

What Are Pronouns?

Pronouns are words used to refer to entities already named by nouns or understood from context. They may constitute a Noun Phrase (NP) by themselves and function independently.

• Unlike nouns, pronouns often derive their specific meaning from the context, referring back to previously mentioned nouns or understood entities.

Personal Pronouns Explained

Personal pronouns are variable words used to designate the speaker, listener, or another entity, indicating grammatical person. Personal pronouns can function as subjects or complements in a sentence.

Stressed (Tonic)

Result Clauses

S + V + So + adj/adv + (that)

Example: She speaks so quickly that I can't understand her.

S + V + Such + (a) + (adj) + noun... that

• Singular or countable noun: It was such a (obligatory if the noun is singular) lovely (optional adjective) day (noun) that I couldn't get on a bus.
• Plural or uncountable noun: It was such dirty (optional adjective) water (noun) that we didn't dare to drink it.

S + V + Too (too much) + adj/adv + (for) + to + infinitive

Example: The tea is too hot for her to drink.

S + V + adj/adv + enough + (for) + to + infinitive (Normally used in negative sentences)

Example: You aren't tall enough (for her) to drink.

Consequence Connectors

• Therefore: For that reason
• Consequently: As a consequence
• As a result: Due to something
• Thus:

Lope de Vega: The Phoenix of Wits (1562–1635)

Lope de Vega (1562–1635) was known as a Monstruo de la Naturaleza (Freak of Nature or Phoenix of Wits) due to his extraordinary productivity. It is estimated that he wrote around 1,800 plays, of which approximately 470 are retained today.

Key Characteristics of Lope's Theater

Archetypal Characters in Lope's Plays

• The Lady: The model of perfect, virtuous womanhood.
• The Gallant: Handsome, noble, and brave, often the protagonist.
• The King: A character who ensures justice and resolves the central conflict impartially.
• The Lady's Father: An exemplary father figure, upholding honor.
• The Opponent: The antagonist of the protagonist. (Servants often act as confidants or go-betweens.)
• The Gracioso (Funny Character)

Spanish Narrative After the Civil War (1936–1960s)

The Civil War marked a profound change in Spanish cultural life. In the narrative, some types of novels disappeared, and a large number of writers were forced into exile. The post-Civil War novel experienced a stage of disorientation, moving toward the existential in the forties, shifting to a social stage in the fifties, and finally setting out in search of new formal channels in the sixties.

The Years of Convalescence (1939–1942)

The stage between 1939 and 1942 has been called by Martínez Cachero the “years of convalescence,” characterized by aesthetic and cultural disorientation. The author highlighted during this period is Miguel Delibes. His work is prolific, encompassing novels,... Continue reading "Post-Civil War Spanish Novel: Realism, Existentialism, and Experimentation" »

Greek Sculpture

Greek sculpture was primarily crafted in bronze and marble, but also in wood, gold, and ivory. It encompassed two main types:

• Relief Sculpture: Used to decorate spandrels and friezes in temples and shrines.
• Free-standing Sculpture: This form embodied the Hellenistic canon of beauty, emphasizing proportion, balance, symmetry, volume, and movement.

Greek sculptures were very naturalistic. The central theme was the human form, which represented various gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines, and athletes.

Sculptural Periods

• Archaic Period: Small figures, known as xoana, first appeared. It was thought they served to pay homage to deities. However, sculptures of athletes were more common. Male figures are called kouroi and female figures korai.

15th Century Catalan Literature: A Golden Age

The 14th century, often referred to as the Golden Century, marked a period of significant economic, political, and cultural flourishing in Catalan-speaking territories. In poetry, the shift from Occitan to Catalan became definitive, while prose saw the robust development of the chivalric novel.

Literary modernization was further propelled by the introduction of classical culture and the increasing emergence of the printing press, which facilitated wider readership. Valencia, in particular, became a prominent cultural center during this era.

Pioneering Authors of the 15th Century

• Ausias March: Celebrated as a pioneering figure in Catalan poetry, March's works explored profound themes such as love, pain,

The Custom in Spain and Its Main Representatives

In Spain, the custom arose from the need to document social changes. Traditionalist Spanish writers also sought to act as society's censors, observing dispassionately from a slight distance to criticize what they deemed negative. Consequently, most Traditionalists hid their personalities under pseudonyms. The most prominent Spanish writers of custom, in chronological order, were Ramón Mesonero Romanos, Mariano José de Larra, and Serafín Estébanez Calderón.

Time of Origin for Customs in Venezuela

According to Mariano Picón Salas, Venezuelan custom emerged around 1830. After years of conflict, Venezuelans desired a sedentary lifestyle and peace, which he considered the first step towards the... Continue reading "Spanish and Venezuelan Literary Customs: Key Figures and Romanticism" »