Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

Early Poetic Period and Conservative Views

In the initial stage of Miguel Hernández's career, characterized by religious expression and conservatism, the poet advocated for hard work and the voluntary renunciation of worldly passions. His first published play, Quién te ha visto y quién te ve y sombra de lo que eras (Who Has Seen You and Who You See and Shadow of What You Were), is a religious work. This play critically examines the revolutionary actions of peasants, anarchists, communists, and labor unions.

The prevailing social and political situation of the time mirrored that of the late 19th century: a powerful territorial oligarchy, a conservative clergy, and an authoritarian military class. Despite this, Miguel Hernández did offer suggestions... Continue reading "Miguel Hernández: Poetry, Politics, and Social Commitment" »

Location and Historical Context

The Imperial Era was the most splendid period of Roman civilization, when it reached its maximum territorial expansion around the Mediterranean, the Mare Nostrum. Roman society was based on a slave production system, mainly utilizing prisoners of war. The large number of Roman slaves enabled great agricultural production, crafts, trade, and the construction of monumental architectural and engineering works. Without this system, building such extensive structures would have been unthinkable. Those who benefited from this system were the Roman citizens, divided into two groups: the patricians, who formed the ruling class, and the plebeians, who did not possess all the rights and privileges. Trade, much like with... Continue reading "The Roman Empire: Expansion, Society, and Culture" »

Rome's Enduring Legacy: Education and Art

The study of Latin and Greek, along with classical writings, formed the core of education from the Renaissance to the early twentieth century. Unlike Greek, Latin maintained a continuous presence through religious and legal contexts in the Middle Ages. Renaissance humanism and the emergence of Romance languages, derived from Latin, further emphasized the importance of Latin studies. Early Renaissance humanism aimed to emulate ancient Roman culture, focusing on developing an elegant Latin style, exemplified by Lorenzo Valla's Elegantiae linguae Latinae. Latin was considered the quintessential language until the seventeenth century.

Classical studies, involving the reading of great works, provided role... Continue reading "Roman Legacy: Education, Art, and Architectural Influence" »

Narcís Oller (Barcelona, 1846–1930)

He is considered the creator of the modern Catalan novel. He began writing in Spanish, but his commitment to realism and contemporary social relations led him to adopt Catalan. Oller was the author who put naturalist techniques into practice.

Major Novels by Narcís Oller

The public and critical success encouraged him to continue developing realism and naturalism. The best of his six novels are:

• La Papallona (The Butterfly): Tonet, a poor orphan girl, is seduced and abandoned by a "butterfly" of a higher social class, but they finally get married. The plot is romantic, but the thorough descriptions place it between realism and naturalism.
• L'Escanyapobres (The Miser): The protagonist's passion for money brings

Baroque Theater: Features and Content

1) Works

Comedies

Local Poultry Comedies

• Attic
• Chambers
• Trap Door
• Scenario
• Yard Musketeers
• Stands
• Men Standing
• Casserole Women

2) Representation Details

Performance Schedule and Structure

• Start: At 2 or 3 PM (benefiting from increased hours of daylight).
• Duration: 4 or 5 hours.
• Order: Loa (representation), dance, 1st act, an appetizer, 2nd act, dance or appetizer, 3rd act, masquerade.
• Plays are performed once, and if successful, repeated all week.

3) Features

Structural and Stylistic Elements

• Division in 3 Acts: Representation, middle, and end.
• Predominance of Action: Building on the plot.
• Breaks the Rule of 3 Units (Classical Theater):
  • Unit of Time: Classical theater used 1 day; Baroque works develop at multiple sites, lasting

Roman Urban Planning: Grid System & City Layout

In their new towns, the Romans adopted a grid system. Its origin lay in the structure of a military camp, enabling rapid army movement in any direction. This rational structure functionally distributed space, allowing inhabitants to easily orient themselves and navigate the streets.

The city was structured around two main axes: the decumanus (east-west) and the cardo (north-south). From these two axes, the centuriation or division of parcels developed, with each city block typically containing 100 properties. At the intersection of both axes, the most representative public buildings were located: the forum (a large central square, serving as a meeting and recreation center), and surrounding... Continue reading "Roman Urbanism, Portraiture & Relief Art" »

The Literary Movement of Humanism

Humanism was a fourteenth-century literary movement that rejected Theocentrism, shifting focus toward the centralization of man. Man began to become the hub of all things. This movement originated in the fourteenth century and concluded in the middle of the fifteenth century, championing a revival of classical roots.

Characteristics of Literary Humanism

The characteristics of literary Humanism include the rejection of all theocentric or classicizing ideologies, focusing instead on the research of what is new and governed by man. This movement notably highlighted the Italian poet, Francesco Petrarch.

Ausiàs March: Style and Poetic Innovation

Language and Style

Ausiàs March is often considered the first poet to write... Continue reading "Ausiàs March: Catalan Poetry, Humanism, and the Philosophy of Love" »

Understanding Literature

Literature is an art form whose raw materials are the units of language, which the writer manipulates to produce an aesthetic and emotional effect on the receiver. The term often refers to the peculiar relationship literary fiction works have with reality.

Key Characteristics of Literary Language

Literary language is used in a deliberately aesthetic way, seeking to create impressions and emotions in the reader. Its primary features include:

• Providing enjoyment and entertainment.
• Facilitating the transmission of ideas.

According to Aristotle, literature is the imitation of reality. However, in literary fiction, the author is guided by reality to recreate a fictional world.

Core Concepts in Literature

Verisimilitude (Likelihood)

Imagery and Symbolism in the Poetry of Miguel Hernández

Images and symbols are fundamental tools that allow Miguel Hernández to express his deepest feelings. Throughout his work, we observe significant changes in the conception and use of these symbols, reflecting the distinct stages of his life and poetic development.

The Moon: From Setting to Self-Reflection

The central symbol in his early work, Perito en lunas (Expert in Moon), is the moon. Initially presented as a simple, pleasant scenario, the moon slowly gains a starring role, eventually becoming regarded as a reflection of the poet himself, embodying his feelings and emotions.

The Whistle and Lightning: Voice and Struggle

The whistle (or whisper) and lightning are key elements in his poetry,... Continue reading "The Evolving Imagery and Symbolism in Miguel Hernández's Poetry" »

The Evolution of Roman Oratory

Introduction to Public Speaking in Rome

Oratory, the art of public speaking, requires a political system that respects freedom of expression. During the Republic, therefore, the speech was held in high esteem. In contrast, under the Empire, freedom of speech was curtailed, and oratory lost its political importance, being taught only theoretically in the schools of rhetoric.

Republican Oratory: The Age of Cicero

With Cicero, oratory reached its highest elevation, both practically and theoretically. Living during the final years of the Republic, his abilities allowed him to reach the highest magistracies. He left us perfect speeches in which the Latin language displayed all its splendor and purity.

Cicero's Rhetorical