Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

The Roman Republic: Government and Structure

The Roman Republic was characterized by a republican system of government. Citizens elected a number of magistrates responsible for different aspects of the city's organization and functioning. This system included:

Citizen Assemblies (Comitia)

• Comitia Curiata: Dating back to the monarchical era.
• Comitia Centuriata: Based on the division of citizens into 193 centuries (from the time of Servius Tullius). This assembly elected senior magistrates and was involved in matters of peace and war.
• Comitia Tributa: Based on the grouping of citizens into 35 tribes. This assembly elected lower magistrates and military tribunes.

Senior Magistrates

Senior magistrates shared three key characteristics: annuity, collegiality,... Continue reading "Roman Republic Government & Italica's History" »

Key Catalan Authors and Valencian Culture

Joan Francesc Mira (Valencia, 1939) is the author of several novels and numerous studies in anthropology. Notable works include The Valencian Land (1978), Culture, Language, Nation (1987), and Critique of Pure Nation (1984), which reflects on the concept of nation, the Valencian national character, and its consequences.

Gustavus Munoz (Valencia, 1951) is an economist, essayist, and translator. He is the chief of the magazine and coordinator of the trial Espill magazine characters. He has published essays such as Speeches: Between Culture and Politics (1998), At the Beginning of a Century: A Diary of Reflections (2002), and Heritage of an Era (2006).

Isabel-Clara Simó (Alcoy, 1943) is an author of several... Continue reading "Key Catalan Authors: Insights into Valencian Culture" »

Joan Salvat-Papasseit (1894-1924)

Joan Salvat-Papasseit was born into a humble, proletarian family. He theorized about what kind of poet he wanted to be and created magazines. He was a supporter of last-minute avant-gardism and wrote what he called futurist manifestos, but they were nothing more than a reaction to the Noucentista poetry of his time. Very close to the avant-garde in his first books of poems, such as "Poems in Hertz Waves" and "Irradiator, Harbor, and Seagulls," he delighted in the new expressive resources and the very communicative effectiveness he obtained: calligrams, words of freedom, and Cubist composition. But increasingly, he chose a poem that included the social and the loving. He knew how to extract the lyrical and sensual.... Continue reading "Catalan Poets and Avant-Garde Movements: A Deep Dive" »

Understanding Scientific Description

The scientific description rigorously reports the characteristic features of objects, beings, phenomena, and processes.

Key Features of Scientific Description

• Clarity and Accuracy: Ensures information is precise and easy to understand.
• Objectivity: Presents reality without bias, avoiding personal opinions or interpretations.
• Rigor and Verifiability: Features must be updated and verifiable through empirical evidence.

Types of Scientific Description

• Static: Presents a fixed and stable reality.
• Dynamic: Presents a phenomenon in process or evolution.

Essential Grammar Concepts

The Subject in Sentences

The subject is a function of the nominal group. It always agrees with the verb in number and person.

Impersonal Sentences

Features of Baroque Theater

Baroque theater emphasized several key elements:

• Acts: Plays were structured with three, four, or five acts, without a fixed form.
• Language and Versification: Verse was used exclusively as a form of dramatic expression, discarding prose.
• The Dramatic Unities: (Time, Place, Action). According to Lope de Vega, the action should not be limited to twenty-four hours in one place, but to its own space and time.
• The Mix of Comedy and Tragedy: Works blended comedy and tragedy, mirroring real life.
• Decorum: Respect for poetic decorum was linked to the desire for naturalness, so each character must act and speak as befits their class.

Characters

• The King: Who may be old and wise, or young and arrogant.
• The Powerful: Noble and superb,

Contemporary Spanish Poetry

Miguel Hernández (Centenary)

Miguel Hernández serves as a bridge between the Generation of 27 and war poetry. This year marks the centenary of his death. His work signifies a return to humanistic themes, contrasting the dehumanized art theories prevalent in the twenties and among some avant-garde movements of '27.

His key works include:

• The Ray Which Never Ceases (sonnets)
• Wind Village (social issues, political commitment)
• Songbook and Ballads of Absences (prison poems: love, family, nostalgia, war)

Poetry of the 40s

Two main trends emerged:

Classical or Established Poetry

Emphasized both form (classic verse, sonnets, pentameter) and themes (religious sentiment, love, nature). Some poets also incorporated avant-garde forms.... Continue reading "Spanish Poetry: From Miguel Hernández to the 80s" »

Pío Baroja

Pío Baroja's novels showcase his pessimistic and negative worldview, where only the strongest survive. Key characteristics of his work include:

• Open Structure: He views the novel as a series of scenes connected by a main character, progressing without a defined plot.
• Varied Settings: The Basque Country and Madrid are prominent, but also Castilian villages, Levantine, and other locations.
• Contemporary or Near-Contemporary Time: His stories are set in his present or a time close to it.
• Impact of Reality on Consciousness: The narrator, often a character, perceives existential pessimism.
• Protagonist Types: His main characters are typically men of action or contemplative individuals questioning the meaning of life.
• Trilogies: He often groups

Spanish Literature in the 18th Century

The Essay

The essay is a literary genre written in prose, usually brief, in which the author reflects on an issue, making us sharers in his personal view on that subject. The essay genre is characterized by not being exhaustive and offering a personal and novel view. It tends to be subjective, as the author expresses his intimate thoughts, establishing a dialogue of ideas with the reader, lacking a fixed structure.

Fray Benito Jeronimo Feijoo

Feijoo gave his work a distinctly didactic tone. He was distinguished by his relentless critique of superstition and false miracles, but he could talk about biology as easily as about literature.

Joseph Cadalso

Undoubtedly, "Moroccan Letters" is his most important work.... Continue reading "Spanish Literature: 18th Century Authors and Works" »

Spain's Literary Shift: The Generation of '98

In 1898, the United States defeated Spain. Consequently, Spain granted independence to Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the United States. This event, known as the "Disaster of '98", deeply impacted Spain. In 1902, Alfonso XIII came of age, and the nation was grappling with a crisis of bourgeois consciousness. The prevailing attitude among intellectuals was one of rebellion. This dissent found its literary expression in two significant renewal movements: Modernism and the Generation of '98.

Core Tenets of the Generation of '98

• The primary theme was the "problem of Spain" following the Disaster of '98. Initially, they suggested "Europeanizing Spain" as a solution.
• Their search for national

Lyric Poetry: Definition and Features

Lyric poetry is a literary genre in which the author expresses their feelings subjectively. It can be written in both verse and prose.

Lyrical Attitudes

• Lyrical Emotion: External reality inspires the composition.
• Apostrophic Lyric: The poet addresses a "you," which is the constant reference in their composition.
• Language of Composition: The author focuses solely on their inner self, their vision of reality, and their experiences. This is the most lyrical attitude.

Distinguishing Features of Lyric Poetry

• Lyric texts are characterized by their brevity and concentration compared to other genres such as fiction and drama, which are distinguished by greater extension.
• The poet tries to express a thought, a feeling,