Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

The Pantheon in Rome

The building holds significant interest, particularly its internal aspect.

Time Period

Art of the High Roman Empire (118-128 AD)

The Pantheon is a religious building dedicated to honoring all the gods, intended for the glorification of the gens Julia and to project the prestige of imperial power.

As indicated by the inscription on the frieze of the portico, the building is attributed to Marcus Agrippa, a friend and general of Emperor Augustus. However, it is now known that Agrippa's original temple was rebuilt under Emperor Hadrian.

The first temple was commissioned by Marcus Agrippa and built between 27-25 BC. Its construction was entrusted to Lucius Cocceius Auctus. It was built between the Basilica of Neptune and the Saepta... Continue reading "The Pantheon Rome: History and Architecture" »

A Collection of Disparate Observations

The aesthetics of body modification, including tattoos and piercings, have become increasingly common. When summer arrives, these drawings and etchings appear on the body.

The Aesthetics of Tattoos and Piercings

There is a huge variety of shapes and colors, and the chosen areas of skin vary widely—from the ankle to the back or the navel. The placement of these designs across the body can be truly striking. Who can forget the famous bolero titled Tatuaje, which tells the story of a woman's love for a sailor, as beautiful as a blonde beer?

The Secret and the Surreal Tree

I have held many secrets in this life. But the biggest one—perhaps the one most in conflict with the official truth—is what I must now... Continue reading "Unconventional Narratives: Tattoos, Secrets, and Civic Interventions" »

Jorge Guillén and the Cycle of Clamor

To designate them as current and actual, he uses the present tense. Clamor: Tiempo de historia is a cycle divided into three parts: Maremagnum (1957), Que van a dar en el mar (1960), and A la altura de las circunstancias (1963). They all see a change in the subjects, focus, and style: Guillén's awareness and protest against the pain caused by unfortunate historical circumstances, although, paradoxically, from a place of optimism. Homenaje is a celebration of famous people of the arts (Góngora, Fray Luis, etc.) who helped him in his intellectual maturity.

The Style and Influence of Jorge Guillén

Style: Guillén is the highest representative of pure poetry in his generation. He uses a highly developed and... Continue reading "Spanish Poetry Masters: Guillén, Aleixandre, and Lorca" »

Regenerationism and Europeanization in Spain

Regenerationism, an ideology born in the 1860s, sought to modernize Spain. Joaquín Costa, a prominent figure, wrote extensively on politics, agriculture, history, and economics. Costa's efforts to modernize and Europeanize Spain involved importing social ideas, inventions, and improvements from Germany, France, and England. His most important book, Oligarchy and Despotism, critiques the political system:

• Oligarchy: Rule by a few who control the entire country.
• State Despotism: A corrupt electoral system where local bosses control the votes of their region.

Regenerationism sacrifices aesthetic beauty for practical purposes. Its aim is to revive Spanish society through the creation of new infrastructure... Continue reading "Spanish Literary Modernization: Regenerationism and the 1902 Novels" »

Medieval Prose

The Middle Ages saw the birth of prose in Castilian (until the 13th century, works were written in Latin).

The Toledo School of Translators was an important institution responsible for translating books into Castilian from Latin, Hebrew, and Arabic.

During the 14th century, prose took on a didactic intent, epitomized by Don Juan Manuel. His most famous work is The Count Lucanor (51 short stories), which follows this schema: The Count, the employer, has a servant who tells a story to his master each time he seeks practical advice on something.

• Topics: Varied teachings that share a common goal.
• Characters: Also very varied, including historical or real figures.
• Structure: They begin with the formulation of a question, which is answered

The Baroque Period: An Overview

The Baroque period represents a significant shift from Renaissance thought, transforming technical and stylistic approaches in the 16th century. Key characteristics include:

• Originality: A focus on creating a unique and impactful experience for the audience.
• Personal Wit: Artists displayed a highly individual and original style.
• Exaggeration: Works often featured exaggerated elements, sometimes making them difficult to understand.
• Disillusionment: Reflecting a sense of falsehood and disillusionment with the world.

Conceptismo

Conceptismo, with Quevedo as its most prominent figure, emphasized the meaning of words, aiming to convey much with few words.

Culteranismo

Culteranismo, exemplified by Góngora, focused on the exaggeration... Continue reading "Baroque Art and Literature: Key Characteristics & Figures" »

Modernism and the Generation of '98

Modernism: Unconformity with art and literature of the last third of the nineteenth century led writers to seek a new literary aesthetic — a major renovation that affects both form and content. Modernism contributes most notably in poetry, but also in prose and drama. For the first time in Castilian literature, the initial impetus comes from Latin America, thanks to authors such as the Cuban José Martí and Rubén Darío.

Characteristics of Modernism

The Modernist poetry, which receives influence from Romanticism and Symbolism and from French Parnassianism, anxiously pursues aesthetic and formal beauty. It can be characterized by the following features:

• Style: Renewal and richness of the lexicon, profuse adjectives,

Spanish Narrative Since 1970: Democracy and Diversity

With the death of Franco in 1975, Spain experienced a regime change without violence. The Constitution of 1978 marked the full recognition of individual rights, freedoms, and the establishment of autonomous communities (comunidades autónomas).

Since 1970, novelists like Luis Goytisolo and Francisco Umbral extended the structural innovations of the narrative. The new stories focused the reader's attention on the protagonist's monologue, exemplified by authors such as Juan José Millás and José María Merino.

The narrative tradition continues to expand, featuring diverse voices. Authors like Arturo Pérez-Reverte combine adventure and chronicle, Enrique Vila-Matas explores experimental themes,... Continue reading "Spanish and Latin American Narrative: 1960s to Present" »

Post-War Spanish Poetry: 1950s to 1970s

The Shift to Social Poetry (Around 1950)

Around 1950, existential poetry began to evolve towards social poetry. The focus shifted from the individual expression of anguish to demonstrating solidarity with others.

Key Characteristics of Social Poetry

The topics covered were social issues affecting the community: injustice and solidarity. This period also saw a recovery of political reflections on Spain and Hispanic society.

The style adopted was simple, close to colloquial, sometimes prosaic, and highly expressive. It aimed to reach the vast majority of readers.

The most important social poets included Blas de Otero with his work I Pray for Peace and the Word, and Gabriel Celaya with his work Cantos Iberians.... Continue reading "Spanish Poetry Movements: 1950s Social Realism and Experimentalism" »

Spanish Post-Romanticism: Bécquer and Castro

In the second half of the nineteenth century, the influence of German poetry came to Spain. These compositions mimic the rhythm and resources of popular lyrics. Far from the complaint and ornamentation typical of earlier Romanticism, this movement culminated in a trend known as Post-Romanticism.

Rosalía de Castro: Galician Post-Romantic Poet

Born in 1837 in Santiago de Compostela, Rosalía de Castro is a foundational figure of the movement.

Major Works by Rosalía de Castro

• Cantares Gallegos (Galician Songs)

  Written in Galician, the author uses traditional forms to evoke the customs and mores of her land. Social issues, such as migration, often feature a vindictive tone.

• Follas Novas (New Leaves)

  Also