Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

Characteristics of Romantic Poetry

In subject matter, love figures prominently, often a passionate love that is usually impossible to achieve. The lexicon is populated by words that reflect the spirit of the times: dissatisfaction, pessimism. Metrics are used in all types of stanzas and verses.

Trends of Romantic Poetry

• Lyric or Sentimental Poetry: Major cultivators of lyric poetry were Espronceda, the Duke of Rivas, Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, and Rosalía de Castro.
• Narrative or Historical Poetry:
  • Historical Poem: Medieval themes.
  • Philosophical Poem: Cultivated by Espronceda (e.g., "The Student of Salamanca").
  • Narrative Poem: Romance restored by the Duke of Rivas.
  • Legend: Focuses on folkloric traditions; the main cultivator was José Zorrilla.
• Social

Spanish Avant-Garde Movements

During the first third of the twentieth century in Europe, there was a real burst of creativity, generating many aesthetic movements that followed one another, intersecting in a few years and at an accelerating rate. These are called Avant-Garde movements, and include Futurism, Cubism, Expressionism, Dadaism, and Surrealism. They are characterized by their experimental effort and willingness to break with the past. The Avant-Garde movements do not form a coherent system; they are very different, even contradictory and opposite.

In Spain, the founder of the avant-garde was Ramón Gómez de la Serna. He wrote novels, plays, and essays, but his fame is mainly due to his "greguerías": one-sentence compositions that... Continue reading "Spanish Avant-Garde Movements & Theater Before the Civil War" »

Spanish Literature: Post-Civil War Poetry and Theater (1940-1970)

Poetry from 1940 to 1970

Introduction

The end of the Spanish Civil War dramatically altered the landscape of Spanish poetry. Some of the great poets died during the conflict, while others went into exile. Vicente Aleixandre, Dámaso Alonso, and Gerardo Diego remained in Spain and influenced post-war poets.

Poetry Scene Since 1939: Miguel Hernández

Miguel Hernández stands out as a leading figure, skillfully combining traditional techniques with avant-garde elements and popular tradition. His first book was *Perito en lunas*, and he reached his full poetic potential in *El rayo que no cesa*. His central themes are life, love, and death, often reflecting his status as a prisoner, his... Continue reading "Spanish Literature: Post-Civil War Poetry & Theater" »

Understanding Literary Forms and Genres

Prose vs. Verse: Fundamental Literary Forms

Prose is a literary form of expression most similar to everyday speech and its natural distribution. It also exhibits different levels of development and aesthetic artifice.

Verse: Its most characteristic feature is musical rhythm. The musicality of verse is achieved through the following resources:

• Accents: The disposition of accents within a verse determines the rhythm of the poem.
• Rhyme: The repetition of certain sounds from the last stressed vowel in each line.
• Syllabic Count: The repetition of the same number of syllables in all verses, or the alternation between two or more syllabic schemes, determines the creation of different rhythms.

Figures of Speech: Enhancing

Expository Writing: Brochure Features

Expository writing is used to raise awareness about an issue of general interest.

Features:

• Aims to inform, explain, convince, and suggest solutions.
• Presents information in a clear, direct, and attractive way.
• The content is displayed following a logical, hierarchical, and coherent order.
• The receptor recognizes authority on a certain topic.
• The brochure is a work of collective effort.
• Uses present tense and standard language.

Resources: Typographical Brands

Explanatory texts have a formal aspect, using various types of fonts and letters, hyphens, periods, colors, numbers, underscores, captions, or titles. These brands have two functions:

• Specify the order.
• Highlight important information.

Schema: Key Connectors for

Cicero's Works

Treaties of Rhetoric

Cicero wrote The Speaker, a three-book work featuring Licinius Crassus and Mark Antony, renowned speakers of the 2nd century BC. Through these characters and two others, Cicero explains the qualities of a good orator. The book proposes that all speeches should be divided into distinct parts:

• Exordium: The introduction of the topic, where the speaker aims to gain public sympathy.
• Exposition or Narration: Presentation of the facts relevant to the speech.
• Argumentation: The speaker provides arguments to justify their intervention or attack the opponent.
• Conclusion or Peroration: A final summary where the speaker reiterates their main points and seeks to persuade the audience.

Cicero also wrote several dialogues, notably... Continue reading "Cicero's Works: Rhetoric, Politics, Philosophy, and More" »

The Roman Republic: Government and Structure

The Roman Republic was characterized by a republican system of government. Citizens elected a number of magistrates responsible for different aspects of the city's organization and functioning. This system included:

Citizen Assemblies (Comitia)

• Comitia Curiata: Dating back to the monarchical era.
• Comitia Centuriata: Based on the division of citizens into 193 centuries (from the time of Servius Tullius). This assembly elected senior magistrates and was involved in matters of peace and war.
• Comitia Tributa: Based on the grouping of citizens into 35 tribes. This assembly elected lower magistrates and military tribunes.

Senior Magistrates

Senior magistrates shared three key characteristics: annuity, collegiality,... Continue reading "Roman Republic Government & Italica's History" »

Key Catalan Authors and Valencian Culture

Joan Francesc Mira (Valencia, 1939) is the author of several novels and numerous studies in anthropology. Notable works include The Valencian Land (1978), Culture, Language, Nation (1987), and Critique of Pure Nation (1984), which reflects on the concept of nation, the Valencian national character, and its consequences.

Gustavus Munoz (Valencia, 1951) is an economist, essayist, and translator. He is the chief of the magazine and coordinator of the trial Espill magazine characters. He has published essays such as Speeches: Between Culture and Politics (1998), At the Beginning of a Century: A Diary of Reflections (2002), and Heritage of an Era (2006).

Isabel-Clara Simó (Alcoy, 1943) is an author of several... Continue reading "Key Catalan Authors: Insights into Valencian Culture" »

Joan Salvat-Papasseit (1894-1924)

Joan Salvat-Papasseit was born into a humble, proletarian family. He theorized about what kind of poet he wanted to be and created magazines. He was a supporter of last-minute avant-gardism and wrote what he called futurist manifestos, but they were nothing more than a reaction to the Noucentista poetry of his time. Very close to the avant-garde in his first books of poems, such as "Poems in Hertz Waves" and "Irradiator, Harbor, and Seagulls," he delighted in the new expressive resources and the very communicative effectiveness he obtained: calligrams, words of freedom, and Cubist composition. But increasingly, he chose a poem that included the social and the loving. He knew how to extract the lyrical and sensual.... Continue reading "Catalan Poets and Avant-Garde Movements: A Deep Dive" »

Understanding Scientific Description

The scientific description rigorously reports the characteristic features of objects, beings, phenomena, and processes.

Key Features of Scientific Description

• Clarity and Accuracy: Ensures information is precise and easy to understand.
• Objectivity: Presents reality without bias, avoiding personal opinions or interpretations.
• Rigor and Verifiability: Features must be updated and verifiable through empirical evidence.

Types of Scientific Description

• Static: Presents a fixed and stable reality.
• Dynamic: Presents a phenomenon in process or evolution.

Essential Grammar Concepts

The Subject in Sentences

The subject is a function of the nominal group. It always agrees with the verb in number and person.

Impersonal Sentences