Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

1. Introduction

• Type of Text: Primary source. A manifest; a historical and political text.

• Author: Collective (Basque political and trade union organizations in exile in France: PCE, PNV, UGT, Izquierda Republicana, ANV, Euskadi Mendigozale Batza, PSOE, ELA, Republicans, CNT).

• Addressee: Primarily all citizens of the Basque Country, and indirectly the Franco Regime. A public text.

• Objective: To reaffirm allegiance to the Republic, support the Basque Government in exile, oppose the dictatorship, and prevent the restoration of the monarchy.

• Location and Date: Published in Bayonne (France) on March 31, 1945, during early Francoism, while the Basque Government was in exile in France, a period of repression and hope for restoring the Republic in Spain

Mexico & Argentina

Mexico's Path to Independence

The hero of the independence, liberal general Guadalupe Victoria, was elected first president under the new constitution in 1833. President Valentín Gómez Farías pushed to Congress a series of radical liberal reforms. General Antonio López de Santa Anna occupied the capital and sent Gómez into exile. He repealed the reform laws and suspended the constitution. The new conservative constitution of 1836 reduced the states to be completely dominated by the central government. This led to the loss of Texas in 1836. The United States annexed Texas in 1845, and the Mexican-American War broke out. By the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico gave up half of the country, ceding Texas, California,... Continue reading "The Struggle for Independence in Mexico and Argentina" »

The Age of Johnson

1744-1785, often referred to as The Age of Sensibility.

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), poet, critic, and author of fiction, is the namesake for this period in literature. Johnson wielded considerable influence over this era with works that focused on neoclassical aesthetics (the study of natural and artistic beauty with an eye toward the great classical writers). Johnson and his fellow writers placed great emphasis on the values of the Enlightenment which stressed the importance of using knowledge, not faith and superstition, to enlighten others, and led to the expansion of many social, economic, and cultural areas including astronomy, politics, and medicine. Writers of the Age of Johnson focused on the qualities of intellect,... Continue reading "The Age of Johnson: Literature, Enlightenment, and Legacy" »

Before the Revolution

In 1900, the Russian Empire had the following characteristics:

• The government was autocratic: the Tsar had unlimited power and authority. Civil rights were not recognized and political parties were repressed.
• The economy was semi-feudal: agricultural land was owned by a wealthy minority and worked by a peasant majority. In 1890, industrialization began, giving rise to the formation of a small bourgeoisie of business owners and a proletariat.
• There was social unrest: three-quarters of the population were peasants who lived in poverty and paid high taxes.

The Causes of the Revolution

During the rule of Tsar Nicholas II, his autocratic power decreased for various reasons:

• The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

  Russia and Japan fought

Mexico has voted for a change and got it. Andrés Manuel López Obrador won the elections by a wide margin and MORENA obtained the majority at the federal level in the chamber of deputies and senators. This practically leaves the country without counterweights, only with the judiciary as hope to exercise responsible opposition.

Although MORENA dominates the chamber of deputies, the presidency of the same indicates, according to the regulations, that the rotation of the board of directors must go in order according to the majorities, so this year it is up to the National Action Party. That has happened in recent years without fail, however, MORENA, with its overwhelming majority, intended that the current president of the Chamber of Deputies,

Key Factors in the Discovery of New Lands

• The Conquest of Constantinople
• The end of the Reconquista
• Growing acceptance of the idea that the Earth was a sphere
• Technical inventions (compass, astrolabe, etc.)
• A new mentality (Humanism)

How Authoritarian Monarchies Reinforced Their Power

• Unifying and extending their territories through marriage and war
• Imposing regular taxes
• Appointing high public officials, summoning the Parliament, and limiting the autonomy of cities by sending corregidores
• Establishing the court in one city
• Maintaining a professional, permanent army
• Establishing a diplomatic system

Humanism in Italy

• Florence: Medici family (patrons who subsidized the arts). Machiavelli, political writer.
• Rome: Papal court. Nicolas de Cusa: humanistic writings.

Tension Factors

PATRIOTISM: People were deeply patriotic and wanted their country to be the best.

ARMS RACE: Germany, Russia, and Britain were building up lots of warships.

WAR PLANS: In 1914, the situation in Europe was tense. Secret alliances and the desire to grow empires had built up a dangerous climate of war.

KAISER: Germany had become very strong and its rivals were suspicious of their ruler, Wilhelm II.

COLONIAL EMPIRES: Some European countries, such as France and Britain, had created large worldwide empires and had become very rich.

ALLIANCES: In the years before the war, the nations of Europe were constantly making alliances. Germany with Austria-Hungary and Italy in 1881 to protect each other in the event they were attacked by France.... Continue reading "Causes of World War I and Phases of the War" »

Economic Growth and Industrial Expansion (1870-1914)

This period witnessed the most significant increase in economic growth ever recorded in such a short time. The standard of living improved considerably in industrialized countries.

Expansion of Industrialization (1870-1914)

• Russia and Spain: Their factories were concentrated in specific regions, and their economies were not fully industrialized.
• Germany: Became the world's leading manufacturer of chemical products.
• United States: Became the leading industrial power thanks to its economic dynamism and the presence of great inventors.
• Japan: In 1868, it began to modernize intensively with the advice of European and North American technicians.

The Rise of Corporations

A characteristic of this period... Continue reading "Industrialization and Social Change: 1870-1914" »

Chapter 7: Mother's Memory

Winston awoke from a dream about his mother. He realized he hadn't murdered her, despite believing he was indirectly responsible. He recalled a childhood of war, hunger, and his mother's quiet despair after his father vanished. Winston confessed to stealing food from his baby sister, leading to a deeper discussion.

Chapter 8: O'Brien's Invitation

Winston and Julia visited O'Brien, witnessing the Inner Party's luxuries. O'Brien revealed the Brotherhood's existence, including its servant member. He outlined the harsh requirements for membership, which Winston and Julia accepted, except for separation. O'Brien promised Winston a copy of Goldstein's book.

Chapter 9: Shifting Loyalties

During Hate Week, Winston received Goldstein'... Continue reading "Winston's Awakening: Rebellion in 1984" »

A New Nation