Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Greek

Descartes' Quest for Certainty Through Doubt

René Descartes, through his Cartesian method, aimed to demonstrate that human reason is capable of discovering fundamental evidences (born from doubt) to construct knowledge. Therefore, his method would be doubt, and his objective, the search for truth. "Doubt is the epistemological procedure to arrive at certainty."

The Cartesian Method: Four Rules

1. Criterion of Evidence: To accept nothing as true unless it presents itself clearly and distinctly.
2. Analysis: To divide each difficulty into as many parts as possible for a thorough study.
3. Synthesis: To conduct thoughts in an orderly fashion, starting with the simplest and easiest to know, and gradually ascending to the more complex.
4. Enumeration: To make enumerations

A

527 Organization

A political group organized under section 527 of the IRS.

Amicus Curiae Brief

Literally, a "friend of the court" brief, filed by an individual or organization to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case.

B

Boycott

A form of pressure or protest – an organized refusal to purchase a product or service.

Bundling

A tactic in which PACs collect contributions from like-minded individuals (each limited by campaign finance laws) and present them to a candidate or political party as a "bundle," thus increasing the PAC's influence.

C

Campaign Assistance

Interest groups have additional strategies to use in campaigns, including recruiting and training candidates, and getting out the vote.

Climate Control

The... Continue reading "Interest Groups in Politics: A Glossary of Terms" »

Comparatives

We use comparatives to compare two things, people, or concepts.

• John is thinner than Bob.
• It's more expensive to travel by train than by bus.
• My house is smaller than my friend's house.

Comparative Rules

One Syllable Adjectives – Add -er

• CHEAP – CHEAPER
• FAST – FASTER
• LIGHT – LIGHTER

One Syllable Adjectives Ending in E – Add -r

• NICE – NICER
• FINE – FINER
• WIDE – WIDER

Two or More Syllables Adjectives – Use More/Less

• BEAUTIFUL – MORE BEAUTIFUL / LESS BEAUTIFUL
• INTERESTING – MORE INTERESTING / LESS INTERESTING

Irregular Adjectives

• GOOD – BETTER
• BAD – WORSE
• FAR – FURTHER / FARTHER

One Syllable Adjectives Ending in CVC – Double the Last Consonant + -er

• HOT – HOTTER
• BIG – BIGGER
• FAT – FATTER

Two Syllables Adjectives Ending in

English Vocabulary Essentials

Nouns

• Ancestor - Ancestro
• Ban - Prohibición
• Belief - Creencia
• Freedom - Libertad
• Manners - Modales
• Misconception - Idea equivocada
• Owner - Propietario
• Path - Camino
• Request - Petición
• Roots - Raíces
• Stereotype - Estereotipo
• Traditional costume - Traje regional

Verbs

• Attempt - Intentar
• Come back - Volver
• Consider - Considerar
• Find out - Encontrar
• Ignore - Ignorar
• Miss - Perderse algo
• Refuse - Rechazar
• Stay behind - Quedarse
• Surround - Rodear

Adjectives

• Appropriate - Adecuado
• Customary - Habitual
• Disturbing - Inquietante
• Forbidden - Prohibido
• Gigantic - Gigantesco
• Narrow-minded - Cerrado de mente
• Open-minded - Abierto de mente
• Proper - Adecuado
• Treacherous - Peligroso
• Typical - Típico

Expressions

• Culture shock - Choque cultural
• Keep... alive - Mantener

Adjectives: Definition and Usage

Rules for Multiple Adjectives

• Two Adjectives: If two adjectives describe a noun, use AND to link them.
• Example: Black and white televisions are very old.

• More than Two Adjectives: Use commas between the first adjectives, and then use AND before the last adjective.
• Example: The company seeks intelligent, motivated, and energetic people.

Determiners and Articles

Articles (A, AN, THE)

• A: Used

English Verb Tenses: Quick Reference

Below is a summary of the main English verb tenses, including examples and their Spanish equivalents.

• Present Simple: I walk (camino)
• Present Continuous: I am walking (estoy caminando)
• Present Perfect Simple: I have walked (he caminado)
• Present Perfect Continuous: I have been walking (he estado caminando)
• Past Simple: I walked (caminé)
• Past Continuous: I was walking (estaba caminando)
• Past Perfect Simple: I had walked (había caminado)
• Past Perfect Continuous: I had been walking (había estado caminando)
• Future Continuous: I will be walking (estaré caminando)
• Future Perfect Simple: I will have walked (habré caminado)

Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)

Reported speech often requires a tense backshift (paso atrás) and... Continue reading "Mastering English Tenses, Modals, and Conditionals" »

Interest Group and Political Finance Terminology

Foundational Concepts

• Faction: What founders called parties or interest groups.
• Pluralism: Theory that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the asserted power of any single group.
• Interest Group: A group with a common interest that seeks to influence government.
• Movement: A large number of people sharing a common issue who are willing to take action.

Organizational Structures and Membership

• Open Shop: A company cannot require union membership as a condition of employment.
• Close Shop: Union membership can be a condition of employment (Note: This practice is largely illegal in the U.S. today).
• Free Rider: An individual who joins a group to collect benefits without being interested in or contributing

Birth of Iberian Christian Kingdoms (8th-10th C.)

The Cantabrian and Pyrenees regions were the origin of new Christian kingdoms formed in the northern Iberian Peninsula between the 8th and 9th centuries.

The Kingdom of Asturias and León

The Kingdom of Asturias emerged in the first half of the 8th century. In 718, Visigoths elected Don Pelayo (Pelagius) as their king. This king confronted the Muslims in the Battle of Covadonga (722). The court was established in Oviedo. Its maximum expansion coincided with the reign of Afonso III (866-910). In the 10th century, the capital was moved to León, and it became known as the Kingdom of León.

The Rise of Castile

Castile was a border zone defending against Muslim incursions from the Ebro Valley. It was... Continue reading "Medieval Iberian Christian Kingdoms: Formation & Society" »

Simple Present Tense Structure

• Affirmative Form

  • I / You / We / They + Infinitive Verb
  • He / She / It + Infinitive Verb ending in -s

• Negative Form

  • I / You / We / They + do not (don't) + Infinitive Verb
  • He / She / It + does not (doesn't) + Infinitive Verb

• Interrogative Form

  • Do + I / You / We / They + Infinitive Verb?
  • Does + He / She / It + Infinitive Verb?

Usage Notes

Used for habits and routines. Frequency adverbs often appear: often, always, sometimes, never, usually, seldom, every...

Present Continuous Tense Structure

• Affirmative Form

  • I + am + Verb + ING
  • He / She / It + is + Verb + ING
  • You / We / They + are + Verb + ING

• Negative Form

  • I + am not + Verb + ING
  • He / She / It + is not (isn't) + Verb + ING
  • You / We / They + are not (aren't) + Verb + ING

• Interrogative