Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Thermal Energy

Thermal energy is the energy a body has due to the movement of its particles. Temperature is a physical magnitude which measures the thermal energy, that is, the movement of a body's particles - SI: KELVIN. The CELSIUS is more generally used. Heat is the thermal energy in transit. This process is carried out naturally between two material systems which are at different temperatures - SI: JOULES-Calories. 1 cal = 4.18 J 1 J = 0.24 Cal. Two bodies A and B have thermal equilibrium when both are at the same temperature.

Physical Changes

Temperature variation: normally the temperature of a body increases when it gains heat and decreases when it loses heat. Changes of state: when a change of state occurs, the temperature of a material... Continue reading "Understanding Thermal Energy and Heat Transfer" »

The Geosphere and Earth's Structure

Studying the Geosphere and Its Relief

Direct Study Methods

• Observing rocks on the surface
• Boring (drilling)
• Satellite photographs, radar, and sonar

Geosphere's Relief Features

The Geosphere's relief includes:

• Continents: Flat areas, mountain ranges, coastlines, cliffs, and beaches.
• Seabeds: Flat areas with small elevations, such as ridges and trenches.

Seismic Methods and Earth's Interior

The Seismic Method studies the variations in seismic wave speed as they travel through different materials within the geosphere.

Understanding Seismic Waves

Seismic waves are vibrations in the Earth that propagate in all directions. The more rigid the material they pass through, the faster they travel.

Types of Seismic Waves

• P-waves (Primary

Week 4 and 5: Zoonotics and Climate Change

What is a vector-borne disease?

Vector-borne diseases are human illnesses caused by parasites, viruses, and bacteria that are transmitted by mosquitoes, sandflies, triatomine bugs, blackflies, ticks, tsetse flies, mites, snails, and lice. Know some examples of common vector-borne diseases such as cholera, dengue, and malaria. Be able to name a few common vectors (mosquitos, ticks, fleas) and a disease they carry.

Difference between direct and indirect modes of transmission

Indirect has a vector.

Role of Climate Change on Vector-Borne Diseases

Week 6: Toxic Metals: CERCLA and Superfund Sites

Clean up of waste sites. Toxic and hazardous and radioactive. Superfund is a United States federal government program... Continue reading "Vector-Borne Diseases, Toxic Metals, Pesticides, and Air Pollution" »

Limit equilibrium methods are used for soil analysis, particularly for determining the material factor of safety. These methods analyze a finite number of potential sliding surfaces.

For each surface, equilibrium is formulated using the maximum stresses available along the sliding surface, with soil strength reduced by an unknown factor F. The value of F is obtained from the solution of the resulting equations.

In soils, commonly selected surfaces are straight lines, circles, or log spirals. In rocks, sliding is governed by weakness planes, and hence blocks or wedges with planar faces are considered.

Corrective Measures for Soil Instability

Corrective measures typically involve either reducing unfavorable actions (weight and/or water flow) or increasing... Continue reading "Soil Stability Analysis: Limit Equilibrium Methods" »

Heavy Industry

In heavy industry, raw materials are transformed into semi-finished products that are then used in other industries. Heavy industries require large capital investments and occupy vast areas near energy sources and raw materials.

Types of Heavy Industry

• Heavy Chemical Industry

  It uses many different raw materials (e.g., coal, hydrocarbons, sulfur, salts) to produce essential materials for other industries (e.g., fuels, fertilizers, acids, explosives).

• Metallurgy

  It transforms non-ferrous minerals into metals (e.g., aluminum and copper) and semi-finished products (e.g., laminates, shaped, and molten metals) for other industries.

• Ferrous Metallurgy

  It transforms iron into steel to make machinery, rails, and other elements required by many

Sedimentary Rocks and Their Formation

Sedimentary rocks are created from the aggregation of particles of sediments. They form layers called "Beds".

1. Weathering:

   Disintegration and decomposition of rocks or dead animals and plants.

2. Erosion:

   Natural forces (water, wind, ice...) break rocks into fragments (sediments) and transport them.

3. Deposition:

   Sediments are layered on top of one another. The old sediments are in the lower layers and the new sediments create the upper layers.

4. Lithification or Diagenesis:

   Compaction: Sediments pile up and the space between grains reduces.

   Cementation: Liquids put the aggregates together like a natural glue or cement.

Metamorphic Rocks

1. Regional Metamorphism:

   Heat and pressure increase in large areas due to tectonic movement.

Wallow (verb)

To roll about or lie in water, snow, mud, dust, or the like, as for refreshment.

Taillights (noun)

A light, usually red, at the rear of an automobile or train.

Dangled (verb)

To hang loosely, especially with a jerking or swaying motion.

Upholstery (noun)

The materials used to cushion and cover furniture.

Leer (verb)

To look with a sideways or oblique glance, especially suggestive of lascivious interest or sly and malicious intention.

Sizzling (verb)

To make a hissing sound, as in frying or burning.

Haggle (verb)

To bargain in a petty, quibbling, and often contentious manner.

Strew (verb)

To let fall in separate pieces or particles over a surface; scatter or sprinkle.

Pail (noun)

A deep, cylindrical vessel, usually of metal, plastic, or wood, with... Continue reading "Understanding 40 Essential Vocabulary Words" »

Diagenesis: Transforming Sediments into Rocks

Diagenesis encompasses the transformation of sediments into sedimentary rocks. It occurs within the Earth's crust and involves physical and chemical changes. There are three main phases:

1. Early Diagenesis (Syndiagenesis)

This phase occurs in the same sedimentary environment where sediment accumulates. It's characterized by intense biological activity, where detritivorous bacteria and organisms consume organic matter, using CO2 and producing oxygen. Key parameters change with increasing depth:

• Oxygen decreases.
• Dissolved CO2 increases.
• Pressure increases.
• Conditions become increasingly reductive and acidic.

2. Deep Diagenesis (Anadiagenesis)

This phase occurs when sediments are buried hundreds or thousands... Continue reading "Diagenesis and Fossilization in Sedimentary Rocks" »

Precipitation

All forms of water that fall to Earth, including rain, snow, hail, sleet, fog, mist, drizzle, and the measured amounts of each.

Rain Shadow

A dry region on the leeward side of a mountain range resulting from a reduction in rainfall.

Runoff

The draining away of water.

Soil

Soil is the medium for plant growth, the principal factor controlling the fate of water in terrestrial environments, nature's recycling system (which breaks down the waste products of plants and animals and transforms them into their basic elements), and a habitat to a diversity of animal life, from small mammals to countless forms of microbial life.

Short-Day Plant

A plant that flowers only after being exposed to light periods shorter than a certain length, typically... Continue reading "Understanding Key Environmental and Soil Science Terms" »

The News: is the account of an event that has recently occurred and is considered to be of public interest.

Headline: is the heading

Lead: captures the essence of the news, the event that occurred, the location, and the time.

Body: develops the subject matter of the news.

Newspaper: is a publication that collects the most recent news on different topics.

Hyperonyms: words whose meaning includes that of others

Hyponyms: words whose meaning is included in that of others

News Era: where the topic it deals with is briefly indicated.

Gigantism: a disease whose body parts are larger than normal.

Oleaginous: oil substance.

Pronouns: are words that are equivalent to a noun or a nominal group.

Demonstrative Pronouns: are words that refer to an object.

Numeral and