Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geology

1. Non-Ferrous Metals and Their Alloys

1.1 General Non-Ferrous Metals

• Medium Melting Temperature: Cu, Ni
• Low Melting Temperature: Zn, Cd

1.2 Light Metals

• Medium Melting Temperature: Al, Mg, Be
• Low Melting Temperature: Li, Na

1.3 Noble (Precious) Metals

• Medium Melting Temperature: Ag, Au
• High Melting Temperature: Ru

1.4 High Melting Temperature Metals

• BCC Lattice: W, Ta
• HCP Lattice: Ti, Zr

1.5 Rare Earth Metals

• Trace Metals: Sc, Y, La
• Lanthanides: Ce, Pr

1.6 Radioactive Metals, Transuranides, and Transactinides

• Naturally Occurring Radioactive Metals: Po, Fr
• Transuranides and Actinides: Np, Pu
• Transactinides and Superactinides: Rf, Db

Metal Purity Levels:

• Raw Metal: 3-5% of impurities
• Technically Pure Metal: Up to 1% of impurities (fluxing)
• Electrolytically Refined

Proctor Compaction Test

1. Obtain air-dry soil on which the compaction test is to be conducted.

2. Sieve the soil.

3. Add enough water.

4. Determine the weight of the Proctor mold + base plate.

5. Attach the extension to the top of the mold.

6. Pour the moist soil into the mold in three equal layers.

7. Remove the top attachment from the mold.

8. Using a straight edge, trim the excess soil above the mold.

9. Determine the weight of the mold + base plate +- compacted moist soil in the mold, W2 (lb).

10. Remove the base plate from the mold. Using a jack, extrude the compacted soil cylinder from the mold.

11. Take a moisture can and determine its mass, W3 (g).

12. From the moist soil extruded in Step 10, collect a moisture sample in the moisture can (Step... Continue reading "Proctor Compaction Test Procedure and Equipment" »

Heat exchangers work in different ways in different animals. A heat exchanger is used to keep the brain cool. If the oryx is dehydrated and can no longer afford to lose water, it stops sweating. This causes the body temperature to rise.

Anti freeze protein keeps the blood from forming crystals in really cold water, e.g. Antarctic cod.

Hibernation is a prolonged torpor that occurs in winter. Over summer and autumn, the animal creates a thick layer of body fat that will provide them with energy during the hibernation period in winter.

Torpor is a physiological state in which the metabolic state is lowered to save energy.

Camouflage enables many organisms to blend in with their environment.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of variables in a system within... Continue reading "Heat Exchangers and Other Adaptations in Animals" »

Structure of the Earth

Earth consists of four concentric layers: inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The crust is made up of tectonic plates, which are in constant motion. Earthquakes and volcanoes are most likely to occur at plate boundaries.

Inner Core

The inner core is in the center and is the hottest part of the Earth. It is solid and made up of iron and nickel with temperatures reaching 5,500ºC.

Outer Core

The outer core is the layer surrounding the inner core. It is a liquid layer, also made up of iron and nickel. Temperatures are similar to the inner core.

Mantle

The mantle is the widest section of the Earth, with a thickness of approximately 2,900km. It is made up of semi-molten rock called magma.

Crust

The crust is the outer layer of... Continue reading "Structure of the Earth and Plate Tectonics: A Comprehensive Guide" »

• Pollution is the addition of a substance or an agent to an environment by human activity, at a rate greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless by the environment and which has an appreciable effect on the organism within it.

• Basically… contamination of nature which affects living organisms.

• Substances exposed to the atmosphere and littering by humans.

POINT SOURCE POLLUTION (Coming from a direct source)

• The pollutants are coming from clear identifiable sources: sewage into a river.

• Easier to see who is polluting.

• Easier to manage and monitor.
  

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION (NPS)

• Release of pollutants from numerous sources: car fumes, etc.

• Almost impossible to detect the origins of the pollutants.

• Rain can collect various forms of nitrates and

Trenches:

A narrow, deep depression in the sea floor.

Ridges:

A long narrow hilltop mountain range or watershed.

Disagreement with Alfred and Changed Opinion

Wegener's hypothesis was not widely accepted because he could not explain how the continents moved. In the late 1950s and 1960s, scientists were able to put together the evidence and concluded that the continents did drift.

Layers of the Earth

The innermost layer, the core, is mostly iron. The pressure at the inner core is more than a million times that at Earth's surface. The layer outside is the mantle, though it is thought to be solid, it is very hot, near the melting point of the rocks. The crust is the outermost, and therefore best-known, layer of Earth.

Theory of Plate Tectonics

The theory... Continue reading "Trenches, Ridges, and Plate Tectonics: Exploring Earth's Geology" »

Q,R,H,E,D,C,P

Aristotle ~ gave us the hypothesis step  (if you think hard enough, you can figure out the answer)

Galileo ~  gave us the experiment step  2,000 years later

For a controlled experiment, only one variable can change.  If more than one changes, then the results are invalid (no good)

Know the scientific measuring tools and what they measure 

Metric ruler:  measures length in centimeters

Thermometer:  measures the temperature of objects

Triple Beam Balance:  measures mass (in grams)

Microscope:  allows us to see objects we can’t with just our eyes (magnifies objects)

Spring Scale:  measures weight (the pull of gravity on an object)

Beaker:  measures the volume of liquids (in milliliters)

Graduated cylinder:  measures the volume

Natural Disasters

• Avalanche

• Drought

  Drought is the unusual dryness of the soil caused by levels of precipitation.

• Earthquake

  An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy.

• Famine

• Flood

  A flood is an overflow of water that covers the earth.

• Hurricane

• Landslide

• Tornado

  A tornado is a column of violent rotating air.

• Tsunami

  A tsunami consists of huge waves caused by an underwater earthquake or a volcanic eruption.

• Volcano

  Volcanoes can cause widespread destruction and consequent disaster in various ways.

• Wildfire

Weather

• Blizzard

• Cloudy

• Damp

• Dry

• Foggy

• Hailstones

• Heatwave

• Icy

• Rainy

• Snowy

• Stormy

• Sunny

• Thunder and Lightning

• Warm

• Wet

• Windy

Preindustrial Societies

Hunter-Gatherer Societies

Hunting, fishing, and gathering fruits and roots were essential for survival in hunter-gatherer societies. These societies had very little impact on the environment.

Agricultural Societies

Agricultural societies formed larger groups. The agricultural revolution transformed the way resources were obtained through:

• Plant species cultivation
• Hydraulic work (reservoirs, dykes, terraces, canals, and channels)

The impact on the environment was relatively small.

Industrial Societies

Industrial Revolution

From the 18th to the 20th century, a new economic model emerged based on the mass production of goods using enormous amounts of energy. This led to serious environmental problems, including the over-exploitation... Continue reading "Environmental Issues and Sustainable Solutions" »