Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Key Concepts in Geology

(exam3)1:superposition=the oldest on the bottom, youngest on top/2:original horizontality=sedimentary layers/lava flows are deposited as flat layers/3:lateral continuity=rocks extend in all directions until they reach the edge of a basin or pinch out/4:cross-cutting=faults and fractures are younger than the rocks they cut through/5:unconformities=missing time/6:inclusions=chunks of weathered rock are older than the rock they are contained in/7:continental drift=Alfred Wegener/8:Alfred Wegener=Pangaea/9:not a major tectonic plate/Juan de Fuca Plate/10: lithosphere=composed of crust and upper mantle/11:continental crust=composed of granite and basalt/12:transform boundary=one colliding plate will be forced because of difference... Continue reading "Understanding Geology: Key Concepts and Terms" »

Mooring Line

A rope or wire used to make a ship fast to a quayside.

Traffic Separation Scheme

A routing measure aimed at separating opposing streams of traffic by appropriate means and establishing traffic lanes.

Liferaft

A small, inflatable watercraft without a motor, carried for emergency evacuation in the event of a disaster aboard a ship.

Immersion Suit

A special type of waterproof dry suit that protects the wearer from hypothermia from immersion in cold water after abandoning a sinking or capsized vessel, especially in the open ocean.

Lifeboat

A small, rigid watercraft fitted with a motor, carried for emergency evacuation in the event of a disaster aboard a ship.

Island

A land mass, especially one smaller than a continent, entirely surrounded by... Continue reading "Essential Maritime Terms: Safety and Navigation Rules" »

Igneous:form.Melting Magma(surface),Lava:magma extruded to surface,Granite&Basalt. Intrusive(below surf pluton-100km2batholith)Extrusive(above surf)90% crust,Jointing-parallel cracks,Exfoliation-peel-off.(Ex.Dome)

Sedimentary:compounds settling(weathering,compaction,cementation-Limestone&SandStone)strata=layers,Clastic sediments=transported water,wind,ice,grav.Chemical sediments=minerals dissolved solution.

Metamorphic:altering processes(heat&pressure)Harder,compression, crushed,cooked,shear and stress.Ex:Marble,Gneiss,slate.Foliated=texture distinct wavy lines of min. Plate tectonics:adrift cause convection currents in upper mantle 6cm/y,Pangae=allEarth-225mil y Triassic Period,Tectonic=building-constr.Sea-floor-spreading-64miKm... Continue reading "Comparing the surface wind to the 3000ft wind:" »

1. Non-Ferrous Metals and Their Alloys

1.1 General Non-Ferrous Metals

• Medium Melting Temperature: Cu, Ni
• Low Melting Temperature: Zn, Cd

1.2 Light Metals

• Medium Melting Temperature: Al, Mg, Be
• Low Melting Temperature: Li, Na

1.3 Noble (Precious) Metals

• Medium Melting Temperature: Ag, Au
• High Melting Temperature: Ru

1.4 High Melting Temperature Metals

• BCC Lattice: W, Ta
• HCP Lattice: Ti, Zr

1.5 Rare Earth Metals

• Trace Metals: Sc, Y, La
• Lanthanides: Ce, Pr

1.6 Radioactive Metals, Transuranides, and Transactinides

• Naturally Occurring Radioactive Metals: Po, Fr
• Transuranides and Actinides: Np, Pu
• Transactinides and Superactinides: Rf, Db

Metal Purity Levels:

• Raw Metal: 3-5% of impurities
• Technically Pure Metal: Up to 1% of impurities (fluxing)
• Electrolytically Refined

Proctor Compaction Test

1. Obtain air-dry soil on which the compaction test is to be conducted.

2. Sieve the soil.

3. Add enough water.

4. Determine the weight of the Proctor mold + base plate.

5. Attach the extension to the top of the mold.

6. Pour the moist soil into the mold in three equal layers.

7. Remove the top attachment from the mold.

8. Using a straight edge, trim the excess soil above the mold.

9. Determine the weight of the mold + base plate +- compacted moist soil in the mold, W2 (lb).

10. Remove the base plate from the mold. Using a jack, extrude the compacted soil cylinder from the mold.

11. Take a moisture can and determine its mass, W3 (g).

12. From the moist soil extruded in Step 10, collect a moisture sample in the moisture can (Step... Continue reading "Proctor Compaction Test Procedure and Equipment" »

The Wilson Cycle: Earth's Dynamic Plate Movement

The Wilson Cycle describes the cyclical opening and closing of ocean basins and the fragmentation and reassembly of continents through plate tectonic processes. It typically involves several stages:

1. Continental Fragmentation and Rift Formation

   Plate dynamics generate tension that can cause a large continental mass to fracture along an axis. As the separation of plates continues, the lithosphere sinks, forming an intercontinental rift valley.

2. Formation of an Expanding Ocean

   If the rift is near a sea, the valley will flood, and a narrow sea will be formed. As the plates continue to separate, a mid-ocean ridge develops along the center, and new oceanic lithosphere expands.

3. Ocean Reduction and Continental

Heat exchangers work in different ways in different animals. A heat exchanger is used to keep the brain cool. If the oryx is dehydrated and can no longer afford to lose water, it stops sweating. This causes the body temperature to rise.

Anti freeze protein keeps the blood from forming crystals in really cold water, e.g. Antarctic cod.

Hibernation is a prolonged torpor that occurs in winter. Over summer and autumn, the animal creates a thick layer of body fat that will provide them with energy during the hibernation period in winter.

Torpor is a physiological state in which the metabolic state is lowered to save energy.

Camouflage enables many organisms to blend in with their environment.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of variables in a system within... Continue reading "Heat Exchangers and Other Adaptations in Animals" »

Structure of the Earth

Earth consists of four concentric layers: inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The crust is made up of tectonic plates, which are in constant motion. Earthquakes and volcanoes are most likely to occur at plate boundaries.

Inner Core

The inner core is in the center and is the hottest part of the Earth. It is solid and made up of iron and nickel with temperatures reaching 5,500ºC.

Outer Core

The outer core is the layer surrounding the inner core. It is a liquid layer, also made up of iron and nickel. Temperatures are similar to the inner core.

Mantle

The mantle is the widest section of the Earth, with a thickness of approximately 2,900km. It is made up of semi-molten rock called magma.

Crust

The crust is the outer layer of... Continue reading "Structure of the Earth and Plate Tectonics: A Comprehensive Guide" »

• Pollution is the addition of a substance or an agent to an environment by human activity, at a rate greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless by the environment and which has an appreciable effect on the organism within it.

• Basically… contamination of nature which affects living organisms.

• Substances exposed to the atmosphere and littering by humans.

POINT SOURCE POLLUTION (Coming from a direct source)

• The pollutants are coming from clear identifiable sources: sewage into a river.

• Easier to see who is polluting.

• Easier to manage and monitor.
  

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION (NPS)

• Release of pollutants from numerous sources: car fumes, etc.

• Almost impossible to detect the origins of the pollutants.

• Rain can collect various forms of nitrates and

Collapse

Collapse is the reduction in wood size during drying before fiber saturation. It manifests as a corrugated surface due to crushed wood tissues and sometimes internal lens-shaped cracks. Collapse occurs in some wood species when dried slowly at high temperatures or humidity, or during rapid outdoor drying. It's more intense on radial cut faces than tangential ones. This defect causes significant wood loss during surfacing and reduces mechanical strength. Tangential shrinkage is greater than radial shrinkage, often separating wood tissues parallel to the weaker radial parenchyma cells. The pith is also susceptible to damage, developing cracks and crevices. In eucalyptus, avoid sawing the pith to achieve good quality dried products.

Drying... Continue reading "Wood Defects and Degradation" »