Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Sedimentary Rocks and Their Formation

Sedimentary rocks are created from the aggregation of particles of sediments. They form layers called "Beds".

1. Weathering:

   Disintegration and decomposition of rocks or dead animals and plants.

2. Erosion:

   Natural forces (water, wind, ice...) break rocks into fragments (sediments) and transport them.

3. Deposition:

   Sediments are layered on top of one another. The old sediments are in the lower layers and the new sediments create the upper layers.

4. Lithification or Diagenesis:

   Compaction: Sediments pile up and the space between grains reduces.

   Cementation: Liquids put the aggregates together like a natural glue or cement.

Metamorphic Rocks

1. Regional Metamorphism:

   Heat and pressure increase in large areas due to tectonic movement.

the atmosphere is the gaseous layer around the earth. Wihthout this layer there is life in the earth.

Internal Forces in the Formation of Relief

• VOLCANOES: Cracks in the Earth's crust can be deep enough to reach areas where there is magma. The magma rises and passes through the volcano's crater to the surface in a volcanic eruption. Volcanic eruptions expel gases, ash, rocks, and lava. When these materials come into contact with the air, they cool down and form a volcanic cone.
• EARTHQUAKES: are the result of the movement of the Earth's tectonic plates. This movement travels in all directions in the form of seismic waves. Earthquakes usually last for only a few seconds, but they cause the ground to shake and can have devastating effects. Earthquakes can be of different magnitudes.

External Forces in the Formation of Relief

• THE ACTION OF WATER: Water

Wallow (verb)

To roll about or lie in water, snow, mud, dust, or the like, as for refreshment.

Taillights (noun)

A light, usually red, at the rear of an automobile or train.

Dangled (verb)

To hang loosely, especially with a jerking or swaying motion.

Upholstery (noun)

The materials used to cushion and cover furniture.

Leer (verb)

To look with a sideways or oblique glance, especially suggestive of lascivious interest or sly and malicious intention.

Sizzling (verb)

To make a hissing sound, as in frying or burning.

Haggle (verb)

To bargain in a petty, quibbling, and often contentious manner.

Strew (verb)

To let fall in separate pieces or particles over a surface; scatter or sprinkle.

Pail (noun)

A deep, cylindrical vessel, usually of metal, plastic, or wood, with... Continue reading "Understanding 40 Essential Vocabulary Words" »

Diagenesis: Transforming Sediments into Rocks

Diagenesis encompasses the transformation of sediments into sedimentary rocks. It occurs within the Earth's crust and involves physical and chemical changes. There are three main phases:

1. Early Diagenesis (Syndiagenesis)

This phase occurs in the same sedimentary environment where sediment accumulates. It's characterized by intense biological activity, where detritivorous bacteria and organisms consume organic matter, using CO2 and producing oxygen. Key parameters change with increasing depth:

• Oxygen decreases.
• Dissolved CO2 increases.
• Pressure increases.
• Conditions become increasingly reductive and acidic.

2. Deep Diagenesis (Anadiagenesis)

This phase occurs when sediments are buried hundreds or thousands... Continue reading "Diagenesis and Fossilization in Sedimentary Rocks" »

Precipitation

All forms of water that fall to Earth, including rain, snow, hail, sleet, fog, mist, drizzle, and the measured amounts of each.

Rain Shadow

A dry region on the leeward side of a mountain range resulting from a reduction in rainfall.

Runoff

The draining away of water.

Soil

Soil is the medium for plant growth, the principal factor controlling the fate of water in terrestrial environments, nature's recycling system (which breaks down the waste products of plants and animals and transforms them into their basic elements), and a habitat to a diversity of animal life, from small mammals to countless forms of microbial life.

Short-Day Plant

A plant that flowers only after being exposed to light periods shorter than a certain length, typically... Continue reading "Understanding Key Environmental and Soil Science Terms" »

The News: is the account of an event that has recently occurred and is considered to be of public interest.

Headline: is the heading

Lead: captures the essence of the news, the event that occurred, the location, and the time.

Body: develops the subject matter of the news.

Newspaper: is a publication that collects the most recent news on different topics.

Hyperonyms: words whose meaning includes that of others

Hyponyms: words whose meaning is included in that of others

News Era: where the topic it deals with is briefly indicated.

Gigantism: a disease whose body parts are larger than normal.

Oleaginous: oil substance.

Pronouns: are words that are equivalent to a noun or a nominal group.

Demonstrative Pronouns: are words that refer to an object.

Numeral and

Estuaries are where rivers or streams meet the ocean, often bordered by salt marshes or intertidal mudflats. Out of the 32 largest cities in the world, 22 are located on estuaries. These unique habitats are crucial for nesting and breeding of various animals. Additionally, most of the fish and shellfish consumed by humans have spent part of their lives in estuaries. Estuaries also play a vital role in filtering out sediments and pollutants.

However, estuaries are facing numerous threats due to coastal development, introduction of invasive species, overfishing, dams, and global climate change. These factors have made estuaries one of the most threatened ecosystems on earth.

Types of Estuaries

• Salt Wedge: Formed by rivers like the Mississippi, Columbia,

Flood Irrigation - Least Efficient Irrigation Method

Properties of Matter