Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

THE WATER OR RIVERS:

The route of the rivers is determined by the relief. The characteristic differentiated sides are the Atlantic side and Mediterranean.

Atlantic:

Here are the longest rivers. This vertiente pertenece the longest river and the mighty of the region Guadalquivur along with its main tributary, the Genil basin is regulated by Gualdalkibir numbers embalses. Other rivers of the red side are the Guadalete, Odiel, and Barbate.

Mediterranean:

Is composed of rivers that pour their waters into the Mediterranean Sea. These rivers are born on the mountain rivers Penibética neighborhoods so they are small and short with irregular flow. Some of these rivers remain dry most of the year. Among Andalusian Mediterranean rivers can stand the walking... Continue reading "Geography and Climate of Andalusia: Rivers, Climate Variations, and Environmental Issues" »

Understanding Ethics: Core Concepts and Distinctions

Etymology and Definition of Ethics

Ethics is a concept derived from the Greek word "ethos," which means 'custom,' 'character,' 'habit,' or 'disposition.' Its etymology is similar to that of 'morality.'

Ethics vs. Morality: Key Differences

While 'ethics' and 'morality' are often used interchangeably, many scholars establish a primary distinction. Ethics is the philosophical discipline that studies morality, forming a core part of moral philosophy.

Ethics is the discipline that studies how human actions should be to be considered morally good. It examines how we ought to act to live a morally upright life and explores various systems where human happiness is often considered the ultimate goal.

The

Precambrian Eon (4.55 Billion to 541 Million Years Ago)

The Precambrian Eon encompasses Earth's earliest and longest period, from its formation to the dawn of complex life.

Archean Eon (4.0 to 2.5 Billion Years Ago)

Rocks from the Archean Eon constitute only about 3% of Earth's exposed surface, yet they hold crucial clues to our planet's infancy.

Geological Evolution

In the beginning, Earth was a vast ocean of magma, which gradually cooled, leading to the formation of the lithosphere.

Atmosphere Formation

The atmosphere formed from the degassing of the planet, with a composition very similar to primitive volcanic emanations: slightly reductive, virtually without oxygen, and rich in water vapor.

Hydrosphere Development

The hydrosphere formed from the... Continue reading "Earth's Ancient Eras: Precambrian and Paleozoic Transformations" »

Darwin's Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

In 1831, during a trip aboard the naturalist ship Beagle, Charles Darwin collected observations that allowed him to propose his theory of evolution. On a visit to the Galápagos Islands, he observed different species of finches. Although all species were quite similar, they presented very distinct specializations. Darwin suggested the idea that species develop in different directions when isolated from each other, but he could not fully explain the underlying mechanism.

Darwin assumed that there was a struggle for survival among animals, where only the strongest, fastest, and best adapted were able to survive. Nature acted as the sorter, determining which organisms would survive or perish based... Continue reading "The Foundations of Evolutionary Theory: Darwin to Modern Synthesis" »

Ancient Theaters, Amphitheaters, and Circuses

Participate in this topic by adding -nt- (1a and 2a) or -ent- (3a and 4a). Laudo to Laudants-NTIS, NTIS-time 2 timens, Capio-3 capients capientis, audio 4-audients audientis. // participant Amans, NTIS puerum-lover Pueri lovers, Puelles amantibus; etc. ...// cancertat may be involved or absolute (in ablative). // Translation (was, were, they came ... they saw ... what is ....)// Decumanus (EO) Cards (NS) //

The Greek Theatre was divided into three distinct sections:

• The stands where spectators were sitting.
• The orchestra, a circular space where the chorus sang and danced.
• The stage, a platform for actors and a building that served as a backdrop, storage, and dressing rooms (scaena).

The Romans followed... Continue reading "Ancient Theaters, Amphitheaters, and Circuses: A Comparative Study" »

Petroleum (Oil)

Concept: The term petroleum derives from petro (rock) and oleum (oil). It is the primary mineral resource of Venezuela, forming the foundation of the nation's entire economy.

Characteristics of Crude Oil

• Classification: Oil is typically classified as:
  1. Light Crude
  2. Heavy Crude (including bitumen)
• Purity Measurement: Its purity is determined by the API Gravity (American Petroleum Institute degree).
• Volume Measurement: Content is measured by the barrel, equivalent to 159 liters (approximately 42 US gallons).
• Crude oil is sometimes noted for having natural anesthetic properties.
• Derivatives: Many essential products are extracted from crude oil, including plastics, lubricants, textiles, gasoline, diesel, and kerosene.

Major Venezuelan Oil Basins

Zulia-

The First Nuclei of Resistance

United Astur-Leones

In 718, Don Pelayo was elected king. In 722, the victory of Covadonga was achieved.

United Pamplona

Around the 9th century, Sancho I strengthened the new kingdom, extending it southward. His dynasty established the County of Aragon in 970.

County of Aragon

In the central Pyrenees, the counties of Aragon, Ribagorza, and Sobrarbe were formed. From 970, it was linked to Pamplona.

Catalan Counties

Located in the eastern Pyrenees, these counties were related to the Carolingian monarchy in the 8th and 9th centuries.

Main Stages of the Reconquest

8th-10th Centuries

Christian advances were limited to occupying nearly empty territories, such as the Duero basin and the northern Ebro.

11th and First Half of the 12th

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface. Here's a breakdown:

1. Solar radiation received: 100%.
2. 30% is reflected by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface.
3. 19% is absorbed by clouds and other atmospheric components.
4. 51% is absorbed by the land surface, which then heats up.
5. The heated surface emits infrared radiation.
6. Some of this infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases and re-emitted back to the surface.
7. The remaining infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere and dissipates into outer space.

Reconstructing Past Climates

Ice core records help reconstruct past climates:

1. Air bubbles trapped in ice: Ice accumulated in layers, particularly in Antarctica, contains small air bubbles. These bubbles reveal the

Understanding Food Additives

Food additives are approved substances intentionally added in small quantities to food and beverages. Their purpose is not to change the nutritional value but to modify technical characteristics for development, preservation, and appeal.

Substances Altering Organoleptic Properties

These additives modify properties like color, taste, and smell to make a food product more attractive to consumers.

Sweeteners

Sweeteners are used to flavor sweet foods. Some may be natural or synthetic, such as saccharin and cyclamate.

Flavorings

Flavorings provide olfactory properties and, eventually, taste. They can be of natural or synthetic origin and are found in various products like soft drinks and soups.

Flavor Enhancers

Flavor enhancers... Continue reading "Food Additives, Packaging, and Processing Explained" »

Characteristics of Spanish River Systems

Atlantic and Mediterranean River Features

Unlike the distinct characteristics of Atlantic and Mediterranean currents, Spanish rivers exhibit unique hydrological patterns:

Atlantic Rivers

• Rivers crossing the Meseta are long.
• Cantabrian and Galician rivers are short and irregular, with very intense dry periods in summer and sometimes in winter.
• The most abundant flows occur in autumn and spring, which are also the times when high water levels concentrate.

Mediterranean Rivers

• Generally short rivers with low streamflow, except for the Ebro.
• Irregular, with intense dry periods and large floods caused by heavy rainfall in spring and autumn.
• Often ephemeral streams or wadis, characterized by channels where water flows