Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Weathering and Erosion

Weathering is the process which causes rocks and minerals to break down and disintegrate into smaller pieces. This can occur through chemical, biological, and mechanical processes influenced by temperature and humidity. Erosion by water forms gullies in the land, which can gradually deepen into ravines and gorges.

Landscapes and Tectonic Plates

Landscapes produced under the surface of the earth are known as karst landscapes. The solid part of the earth is divided into different layers separated by areas known as discontinuities, such as the Mohorovičić discontinuity, Repetti, Gutenberg, and Lehmann. Tectonic plates, made up of the crust and the upper mantle, are massive slabs of solid rock. Volcanoes are cracks or openings... Continue reading "Understanding Weathering, Erosion, and Tectonic Plates" »

Properties of Minerals

Loads of things are made of minerals. Rocks are a mixture of minerals and minerals are a mixture of chemical elements. Every mineral has properties. A mineral has the physical properties (you can see from the outside): colour, shape, size, shine, hardness, cleavage (how does the mineral break). And it also has the chemical properties (you can’t see from the outside): carbon dioxide…(minerals). Crystals can form from freezing and cooling, and we know that because the video shows us that if you mix sugar (or magnesium sulphate as we did in the lab which are crystals already) with hot water, and then we cool the water down we will obtain a bigger crystal. This process is called re-crystallization. The video also teaches... Continue reading "Understanding Minerals and Rocks: Properties, Formation, and Uses" »

Tunnel Typology

General Tunnel Classifications

• True tunnels: Typically constructed by boring or mining.
• Cut-and-cover tunnels: Involve slope excavation and the construction of retaining walls, with the tunnel then covered.
• Submerged tunnels: Constructed underwater, often by sinking pre-fabricated sections.

Classification by Ground Type

• Soft ground tunnels: Require specialized soft excavation techniques and robust support systems.
• Rock tunnels: Involve hard rock excavation methods and typically require moderate support.

Classification by Purpose

• Without inner pressure: Examples include hydraulic, railway, road, pedestrian, and hybrid tunnels.
• With inner pressure: Such as pressure galleries where the ground's stiffness significantly influences design and

   anticyclone->air mass with high atmosph. Pressure

depression->air mass with LOW

S-H-depression->clockwise * N-H-anticyc->clock

isobar-lines of equal pressure/const.Pressure on weathe map

*heated air rises>air condenses,clouds form>descending air is dry>little rain falls here>sun heats ground>air rises cool>warm moist winds>rain falls

*Precipitation zones>humid warm,dry warm,humid tempe,dry cold

*clouds>cirrus,stratus,cumulus,nimbus,altocumulus,numbostratus

*precipitation factors>air pressure,humidity,ocean currents,atmospheric circulation,

*air mass>arctic and antarctic->cold and dry, polar air mass, tropical, equatorial

*fronts->warm,cold,stationary,occluded

*cyclone>N.H.-anti,  S.H.-clock

*... Continue reading "Given dry operating mass 5210 zero fuel mass" »

Hello, we are going to talk about landslides. For us, this is really a massive natural disaster because it has a strong impact on all aspects, like the environment, the economy, and security. It is important to know about them because, basically, they can happen anywhere in the world. But first of all, what is a landslide?

Understanding the Causes of Landslides

It's important to understand the causes of this natural disaster because often people think that natural disasters are caused by supernatural forces. For example, in Mexico, some people believe that earthquakes happen in the month of September. Similarly, with landslides, some people think they are caused by a punishment from God or because Mother Nature is angry, but this is completely... Continue reading "Understanding Landslides: Causes and Impacts" »

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is the increase in nutrients, which increases the number of producers. This makes the water cloudy and prevents photosynthesis from taking place in the deeper levels, as there is a lack of sunlight. Heterotrophic organisms and decomposers intensify their activity, as there is more organic matter available. They also increase their oxygen consumption. In the end, the oxygen in the deeper level runs out, making it impossible for most species to survive.

Theory of Continental Drift

1912-1960: 225 million years ago, all the continents were joined together as one large supercontinent called Pangea. Over a very long period, the continents drifted apart to the positions they are today.

Evidence for Continental Drift

• Geological:

Energy Sources

Energy is the ability of a system to do work. Chemical: stored energy contained in chemical compounds. Released during chemical reactions, electrical: produced by the flow of electric charge, thermal: released as heat, electromagnetic: stored in electromagnetic waves or radiation, mechanical: combination of two energies (kinetic: things in motion, potential: stored within an object), nuclear: stored in the nuclei of atoms (fission: nucleus splits, fusion: nucleus joins).

Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Non-renewable energy sources are limited energy resources obtained from beneath the Earth. They are being used faster than they can be replenished. Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of microorganisms, plants and animals buried... Continue reading "Understanding Energy Sources: Renewable vs Non-Renewable" »

Hydropower

Hydropower utilizes the energy of water in rivers, which can be dammed to create reservoirs. These reservoirs have exit gates that lead to a turbine. The rotation of the turbine is converted into electricity. Reservoirs also serve to store water for irrigation and human consumption, and they help prevent dangerous floods.

However, hydropower has drawbacks. It can:

1. Inundate large areas of the banks.
2. Destabilize deltas (sediment that nourished these is now trapped at the bottom of the reservoir, and the sea erodes the delta).
3. Alter aquatic life.

Consequently, new hydropower plants are no longer built in many countries, and some older ones are being dismantled in more advanced nations.

Nuclear Energy

Globally, there are 442 nuclear power plants... Continue reading "Sustainable Energy Sources: Hydropower, Nuclear, Wind, and Solar" »