Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

Mechanism of Continent Movement

• The concept suggests oceanic sliding; the ocean floor remains motionless.
• Lithospheric plates slide over the mantle as the continents move. The oceanic floor changes.

Forces Driving Continent Movement

• Not clear. One mechanism suggests Earth's rotation could be the cause of motion.
• Mantle convection currents. Seafloor spreading at the ridges pushes the continents.

Causes of Reliefs

• Wrinkles produced in the leading edge of continents.
• Lithospheric plate collisions.

Oceanic and Continental Lithosphere

• Thickness

  • Oceanic: 100 km
  • Continental: 300 km

• Crust Composition

  • Oceanic: +90% of its mass are basaltic metamorphic rocks. Rocks poor in quartz.
  • Continental: +85% of its mass are granitic metamorphic

There are three major morphostructural groups:

1. Antique Beds: Made up of mountains of medium height, flattened summits (peneplains), consisting of material folded in the Paleozoic era, deformed by Hercynian and Alpine folding.

2. The Alpine Mountains: These are very young and high; their basic material is limestone.

3. Depressions: These can be of different types:

• Some fragments are located on the old sunken Hercynian base, such as the Cuenca del Duero.
• Others occupy former inlets or bays that are silting up by sediments from the Alpine ranges, such as the depression of the Ebro and Guadalquivir.

Mainland Units and Dynamic Stresses

The fundamental unit is the Meseta peninsular relief, which is an area of highlands (600-800 m) divided into two sectors... Continue reading "Major Morphostructural Units and Relief Dynamics of Spain" »

Aristotelian Physics: Change, Causes, and the Prime Mover

The study of Physics, in the Aristotelian sense, is the science of mobile entities. It explains change and evolution, detailing how they are produced by Potency [what is not but "can" become] and Act [what it is]. Change is the transition from what is potential to what is actual (to become something).

• Substantial Change: A transformation in the very nature of a thing (e.g., from a seed to a tree).
• Accidental Change: A transformation in a non-essential quality (e.g., from a student to a doctor). Accidental changes can be:
  • Quantitative (change in size or number)
  • Qualitative (change in quality or characteristic)
  • Locative (change in place or position)

Matter is defined as the potential to be shaped... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Physics: Aristotle's Causes & Pre-Socratic Thought" »

Properties of Minerals

Physical Properties

Exfoliation: The property of minerals to split along a preferred direction. These minerals have a weaker union between each crystalline unit. It depends on the internal structure of the crystal and is constant for each mineral. The following grades are usually distinguished: excellent, perfect, good, very flawed, and imperfect.

Fracture: When a mineral fractures, the chemical bonds are broken irregularly, unrelated to the symmetry of the structure.

Toughness: The resistance of a mineral to being scratched. It depends on the chemical bonds. Its value is calculated by comparing it with other minerals of known hardness (Mohs scale).

Specific Gravity: A number that expresses the relationship between the mineral'... Continue reading "Mineral Properties: Physical, Optical, and Chemical Characteristics" »

Geological Origin: Plate Movement

The relief units in the Iberian Peninsula are composed of layers of rock that have been folded or fractured. All these changes are caused by plate tectonics. The geological history of Spain is conditioned by the interaction of two plates: the Eurasian and African plates.

• Precambrian or Archaic Era

  (Started ~4 billion years ago) A set of lands emerged from the sea, with outcrops consisting of gneiss and slates in what are now the Central System and the Montes de Toledo. These were later eroded and covered by the sea. The Iberian Peninsula formed a vast geosyncline where materials were deposited.

• Primary or Paleozoic Era

  (Started ~600 million years ago) The first major orogeny occurred: the Hercynian orogeny. After

Agglomerated Materials Defined

Stones, sand, and similar substances are materials that possess the property of adhering to other materials, forming what are known as mortar and concrete pastes. These materials are molded into their final form and subsequently harden.

Agglomerative Material Classification

Aerial Materials

These are materials that harden in the air and are not water-resistant (e.g., gypsum, aerial lime).

Hydraulic Materials

These harden both in air and in water (e.g., hydraulic lime, Portland cement).

Bituminous Materials

These are liquid or viscous hydrocarbons that harden by evaporation of their solvents or by cooling (e.g., asphalt cement).

Types of Gypsum

• Gypsum Dihydrate (CaSO₄·2H₂O): The most abundant form found in quarries.

Tassel House

Victor Horta, Brussels, 1892-1893

Key Features:

• Location: Brussels
• Architect: Victor Horta
• Style: Modernism (Art Nouveau)
• Period: 1892-1893
• Construction System: Industrial Materials

Historical Context

The 19th century was a time of profound political, economic, and cultural change. The Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution were particularly influential. Napoleon extended French influence throughout Europe. Following his defeat, the victorious European monarchies sought to restore the old order, a period known as the Restoration.

Cultural Movements

Three major artistic movements dominated this era: Neoclassicism, Realism, and Romanticism.

Modernism (Art Nouveau)

a) Emergence: Modernism, also known as Art Nouveau, emerged as a response... Continue reading "Victor Horta's Tassel House: A Modernist Masterpiece in Brussels" »

Stratigraphic Methods

Stratigraphic Discontinuities

Breaks in sedimentation are called diastems. A time lapse without sedimentation is called a hiatus. If erosion occurs during this time, it results in a stratigraphic unconformity. Types of unconformities include disconformity, angular unconformity, and nonconformity.

Principle of Superposition of Strata

This principle states that in an undisturbed sequence of strata (layers), the order from oldest to most recent ranges from bottom to top. Related principles include the Principle of Original Horizontality and the Principle of Lateral Continuity of strata.

Exceptions:

• The Principle of Original Horizontality may not be valid at the edges of sedimentary basins.
• The Principle of Lateral Continuity does

Understanding Masonry Construction Techniques

Dry Stone Masonry

This type of masonry involves stacking rubble stones without using any mortar, or at most, using mud/clay. The stones are worked and carefully placed to fit closely together, ensuring that joints and gaps are minimal. These walls can be built with a slight incline or batter, typically between 1/7 and 1/5 of their height, for stability.

Mortared Masonry Walls

These walls are constructed using manufactured or natural stones laid without specific shaping, but employing mortar for bedding the stones and filling the joints. Key considerations include:

• Ensuring each rubble stone rests stably on the one below it.
• Trimming stones as needed to achieve a good fit.
• Using smaller stones, known as

Earth's Mantle: Structure and Composition

The middle layer is currently not able to be pierced. The survey in the Kola peninsula reaches 13 km deep. The Bavaria project in another poll is 14 km, where the inconvenience can be saved because the temperature does not exceed 300ºC, otherwise, the drill bit would melt. Mantle rocks were put on the surface through favorable tectonic structures. In the mantle, we must distinguish two layers:

• The upper mantle from 30 to 670 km of depth.
• The lower mantle from 670 to 2,900 km.

The Repetti discontinuity separates them. The predominant rocks are peridotites, which have the same density in the upper mantle. They outcrop in the mountain ranges in the form of ophiolite complexes. Their typical minerals are olivine,