Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

The Rock Cycle

The eroded rock reliefs acquiesce.

In areas of collision, mountains arise, and rocks undergo a process of metamorphosis.

The succession of these phenomena is the rock cycle.

The surface rocks are altered by physical or chemical processes to form sedimentary rocks.

In the depths of the crust, in subduction zones, by varying the temperature and pressure, metamorphic rocks occur.

Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of magma from the melting of solid materials from the mantle or crust. If cooling is slow, the structure of the rock is plutonic; if it's fast, it's volcanic.

Magmatism

Magmatism on the Ridges

There are cracks in the ridges where basaltic magma rises, which solidifies at the bottom of the sea.

Magmatism in Subduction Zones

In... Continue reading "Understanding the Rock Cycle, Magmatism, and Mountain Formation" »

Geology: Understanding Our Planet and Solar System

Geology is the science that studies the composition, structure, origin, and evolution of the Earth and other celestial bodies within the solar system.

Origin of the Solar System

The solar system, approximately 4.5 billion years old, originated from a nebula. This nebula consisted of dust, hydrogen, helium, and trace amounts of other chemical elements.

The nebula underwent several distinct phases:

1. Condensation: A nearby supernova explosion destabilized the initial nebula. Attractive forces overcame repulsive forces, causing materials to condense. The concentration was highest at the center, forming a protosun (primitive sun).
2. Planetesimal Formation: Condensed materials collided, forming planetesimals.

The Hydrosphere: Oceans, Seas, and Freshwater

The hydrosphere comprises the Earth's water. Oceans and seas account for 97% of this water, while freshwater makes up the remaining 3%.

Freshwater Distribution

Freshwater is distributed as follows: 78% in glaciers, 21% in subterranean sources, and 1% on the surface.

Key Properties of Water

Water possesses several unique properties:

• It is a good solvent.
• It absorbs large amounts of heat.
• Its thermal expansion (dilatation) is abnormal.
• It is adherent.

Ocean Water Movements

Ocean water exhibits three primary movements:

• Waves: Caused by wind.
• Currents: Movement of large water masses.
• Tides: The periodic rise and fall of sea levels.

The Water Cycle

The water cycle is the continuous set of steps and processes that water... Continue reading "Earth's Water, Minerals, and Rock Formations" »

Understanding Natural Resources

All elements of nature that can be utilized to meet human needs and ensure survival and well-being are defined as natural resources.

Classification by Regeneration Rate

Natural resources are primarily distinguished based on the time required for their formation or regeneration:

• Renewable Resources

  These resources can regenerate after use, provided their consumption rate does not exceed their regeneration rate. Examples include water and solar energy.

• Non-Renewable Resources

  These are resources that cannot be recreated or replenished once consumed. Examples include oil and coal.

• Inexhaustible Resources

  These resources are used by humans in very small amounts relative to their vast abundance in nature. An example is solar

Climate: Concepts and Parameters

Climatology is the science that deals with climate studies. Climate is a set of meteorological phenomena that characterize the situation and weather in a particular place on Earth. The climate is the result of a series of interactions between latitude, altitude, continentality, and prevailing wind patterns.

Precipitation

Precipitation is water falling on the Earth's surface in liquid or solid form. For precipitation to occur, clouds must first be formed. This happens in three different ways:

• Convective Precipitation: Caused by rising warm air.
• Orographic Precipitation: Occurs when moist air is forced to rise over mountains.
• Frontal Precipitation: Results from the interaction of different air masses along a front.

Types

Sedimentary Rocks: Formation & Characteristics

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of sediments, subjected to physical and chemical processes (diagenesis), resulting in consolidated material.

Sedimentary Rock Texture Types

Clastic Texture

Clastic texture characterizes sediments formed by the mechanical accumulation of detrital particles. This texture is influenced by the size and shape of the original mineral and rock particles, or by the types of organisms whose skeletons or shells accumulate.

Non-Clastic Texture

Non-clastic textures are formed by chemical and organic substances.

Major Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Detrital Sedimentary Rocks

Detrital rocks are formed by the accumulation of debris from erosion and deposited by gravity.... Continue reading "Sedimentary Rock Formation: Types, Textures & Processes" »

The Solar System: Planets and Origins

Planets of Our Solar System

According to the International Astronomical Union (IAU), the planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

Origin of the Solar System

Observations supporting theories of solar system formation include:

• The Sun and the planets revolve in the same direction.
• The planets travel in nearly circular orbits lying in the same plane.
• The rotation of most planets occurs in the same direction as their convection.
• Planets near the Sun are small and dense, while external planets are large and lightweight.
• All planetary bodies show evidence of large impacts.

The Planetesimal Theory

Designed by astronomers Carl F. Von Weizsäcker and Gerard Kuiper between 1944 and 1950, this... Continue reading "Understanding Our Solar System and Earth's Dynamic Geology" »

Petroleum Refining: Cracking Process

Sometimes, crude oil distillation yields only a small percentage of gasoline. To increase this percentage, a secondary distillation process called cracking is used. Cracking breaks down high molecular weight hydrocarbons (such as gas oil and fuel oil) into lower molecular weight compounds (like gasoline). This process always forms hydrogen and carbon compounds. It is very important in petroleum refineries as a way to increase gasoline production at the expense of heavier, less valuable products, such as kerosene and fuel oil.

Types of Cracking

There are two main types of cracking: thermal and catalytic.

• Thermal Cracking: This process involves heating the heavier parts of crude oil to high temperatures under

Understanding Pollution and Its Control

The concept of pollution is related to humanity's ability to modify its environment beyond its own subsistence needs and related activities, much like other animal species. To combat pollution, control regulations often focus on 'end-of-pipe' solutions. This means ordering actions to remove or treat contaminants. The strategy aims to render emitted contaminants harmless or to package and store theoretical compounds away from the environment. However, the true solution to environmental problems lies in preventing and avoiding contamination altogether.

Defining Atmospheric Contamination

Atmospheric contamination occurs when the air's composition changes, altering its chemical and physical properties, or when... Continue reading "Impacts of Pollution on Our Atmosphere" »

Spain is geographically softened, like an inaccessible castle. The Iberian Peninsula has the highest average altitude in Europe, second only to Switzerland. The coast is often surrounded by walls, and the citadel would be the plateau, with a mean altitude of 700 meters. This plateau is the higher, more archaic, and more exposed part of the peninsula. However, even within this core, inaccessibility occurs again, as if there were more castles within the main one.

Geological Evolution

The geological evolution of the Iberian Peninsula is primarily due to its location between the African and European plates. There are several geological land surface sets in Iberia:

Geological Sets

• Very Ancient Materials (Precambrian or Archaic): Heavily affected by