Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Materials in a Building

Structure

The strong skeleton of the building, consisting of:

• Cimientos (Foundations)
• Pillars
• Vigas (Beams)
• Forjado (Slab/Flooring)

They can be made of concrete, reinforced concrete, or steel.

Siding

Serves as external protection against atmospheric agents. Consists of: facade walls and the roof structure (steel support on which the roof is constituted).

Partitions

Internal walls or divisions that sort and distribute the interior space. Typically made of bricks and plaster.

Coatings

Applied to floors, walls, and ceilings to provide a finished surface. Consist of materials such as paint or fabrics.

Types of Rocks

Magmatic or Igneous Rocks

Formed by the solidification of molten material from inside the Earth, e.g., Granite.

Sedimentary

The El Niño and La Niña Phenomena

The normal situation along Peru's coast involves trade winds pushing surface water westward across the Pacific, leading to the upwelling of nutrient-rich water and fertilization of the area. These winds originate from an anticyclone located over Easter Island and dissipate near the Asian continent.

Understanding El Niño

The El Niño phenomenon is characterized by the excessive heating of the surface waters in the eastern Pacific. It typically occurs every 3-5 years and lasts approximately 18 months. This event happens when trade winds subside, allowing the surface water to heat up and form a storm system.

Understanding La Niña

La Niña is considered an exaggeration of the normal situation, occurring when trade... Continue reading "Understanding El Niño, La Niña, and Frontal Precipitation" »

The geological cycle describes the changes Earth's surface undergoes over time. These changes are driven by two main agents: internal forces (related to Earth's heat and relief) and external geological forces (processing relief through solar energy and gravity).

External Geological Agents

Atmosphere

The atmosphere directly acts on rocks through chemical weathering and mechanical processes.

Water

Water plays a crucial role in several ways: as surface water, underground water, ice, and seawater.

Wind

Wind, powered by wind energy, is a significant agent in areas with little to no vegetation.

Factors Determining External Geological Agents' Impact

Several factors influence how external geological agents wear down the Earth's surface:

• Climate: The presence

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Monkeys: Cercopitecoideos: Macaques, baboons, Chucks
Hominoids: chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas, gibbons, Male hominoids - Hylobatidae (Gibbons) - Hominidae (orangutans (ponginos) Gorilla (gorilla), chimpanzees (Pan), Man (homo))
Foramen magnum in the center of the skull, thus allowing a march erguida.-Increased skull size and more rounded. - Absence of supraorbital... Continue reading "Primate Evolution and Human Ancestry: Key Adaptations and Milestones" »

Earth's Climates, Landforms, and Oceans

Warm Climates

Warm climates are found in intertropical areas, between the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn:

Equatorial Climate

Warm temperatures and abundant rainfall throughout the year, exceeding 2,000 mm annually. The vegetation is characterized by abundant forests.

Tropical Climate

Very warm temperatures with rainfall concentrated in specific months. The savanna is a typical landscape feature.

Desert Climate

Very hot and with very little rainfall, less than 250mm annually. The vegetation is sparse and adapted to drought, such as cacti or esparto grass.

Temperate Climates

Located between the tropics and polar circles. These climates experience four distinct seasons with notable differences in temperatures and... Continue reading "Understanding Earth's Climates, Landforms, and Oceans" »

Crystalline and Amorphous Bodies

Crystalline body: Atoms and molecules are in perfect order, obeying physical laws.

Amorphous body: Atoms and molecules are in disorder and do not obey any law.

Crystallography Fundamentals

Crystallography: The science that studies crystals as geometric polyhedra.

Types of Crystal Definitions

• Euhedral: Completely defined edges and faces.
• Subhedral: Partially defined edges and faces.
• Anhedral: No defined edges or faces.

Crystal Size Classifications

• Microcrystalline: Tiny crystals, visible only under a microscope.
• Cryptocrystalline: Crystals only visible with X-rays.

Objectives of Crystallography

1. Study of crystals.
2. Study of crystal systems.
3. Study of mineral aggregates (twins).

Crystal Symmetry Elements

• Center of Symmetry: The center

The Rock Cycle

The Rock Cycle: Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and crystallization of magma. When exposed to weathering agents on the Earth's surface, they decompose. Weathering products are transported and deposited as sediment. During and after deposition, the lithification process occurs, in which sediments become sedimentary rocks. When buried deep underground, under high temperatures and penetrated by chemically active gases and solutions, these rocks are transformed into metamorphic rocks. Metamorphism does not melt the rock, but the minerals change shape and often in nature. If the rock melts, it creates magma. This magma, upon cooling, produces igneous rocks, and a new cycle begins. The cycle can be interrupted and follow paths... Continue reading "Rock Cycle, Minerals, Monsoons, Air Fronts, and Metamorphism" »

Understanding Environmental Impact

Appeal refers to anything that humanity uses to meet their basic needs and desires. These resources can be categorized based on their origin:

• Natural resources: such as water and air.
• Human resources: resulting from our activities.

Based on availability, resources can be:

• Renewable: capable of regeneration (e.g., solar, wind).
• Non-renewable: finite and not easily replenished (e.g., oil, minerals).

Several factors impact resource availability and environmental health:

• Demographic explosion: High population growth leads to increased demand and utilization of resources, resulting in overfishing and ecosystem changes.
• Uncontrolled development: Prioritizes the production of goods without considering environmental degradation.

Understanding Water: Properties and Types

Water's States and Transformations

Water is a unique substance, commonly found in its liquid state, but it can also exist as a gas (water vapor) or a solid (snow, ice, hail). Its ability to change states with ease is fundamental to many natural processes.

• Liquid: Rain, seas, rivers
• Solid: Snow, ice, hail
• Gas: Water vapor

To transform liquid water into steam, you simply need to heat it. Conversely, to turn it into ice, you must cool it. A remarkable characteristic of water is that it expands when it freezes, which is crucial for aquatic life.

The Essential Water Cycle

In nature, the total amount of water remains almost constant because it follows a continuous circular path known as the Water Cycle. This cycle... Continue reading "Water Properties and Types: A Comprehensive Resource" »

Understanding Earth's Ancient History

Key Concepts in Paleontology

Paleobiogeography: Species Distribution and Migration

• Defining the largest possible precision divergence geographic areas of species and fossil groups.
• Understanding their migrations.

Barriers to Migration

• Weather patterns
• Prevailing winds
• Ocean currents
• Differences in temperature and salinity
• Presence of rivers
• Areas of dense vegetation
• Mountain ranges

Paleontological Basis: Evolution Through Time

• Variation of organisms over time.
• Intermediate or transitional forms.
• Synthetic forms.
• Progressive vestigial organs.

Stratigraphic Paleontology: Fossils and Strata

• Characteristic fossils in specific strata.
• Fast-moving species.
• Wide area dispersion.
• Abundance in the layers.

Earth's Geological Eras: A Timeline

Cenozoic