The Physical Geography of Europe

The environment in Europe is naturally favorable, characterized by temperate and maritime climates.

3.1 Geological History and Relief Formation

The European continent has a surface area of 10,500,000 km² with an average altitude of 300 meters. Geological history has profoundly shaped the current reliefs of Europe.

• The Precambrian shields form the core and basis of the continent.
• In the Paleozoic Era, the Caledonian Orogeny lifted the relief of Northwestern Atlantic Europe.
• The Hercynian Orogeny generated the central massifs of Europe.

During the Mesozoic Era, erosion acted upon these reliefs, forming erosion surfaces, while sediments accumulated in the Tethys Sea and continental basins. During the Tertiary Period,... Continue reading "European Geography and Climate: Relief, Geology, and Major Climate Zones" »

Item 3: Hydrology and Vegetation

Key Hydrological Terms

• River: A natural stream of water that flows into another river, a lake, or the sea.
• Full Flow: The amount of water flowing in one second past a point in the river.
• Drought: A period during which a stream reaches its lowest flow.
• Flooding: Time of maximum river flow.
• Torrente: An impetuous and violent stream, linked to heavy rains.
• Runoff: The relationship between the amount of rainfall and the amount of water that a river has.
• Fluvial Regime: The seasonal variation in the flow of a river.
• Catchment: Land whose waters pour into a main river and its tributaries.
• Slope Basin: A set of water catchments discharging to the same sea.
• Hydraulic Works: Buildings that are intended to regulate water resources

Types of Bone Fractures

According to Their Pattern of Interruption

Incomplete Fracture: The fracture line does not cover the entire thickness of the bone.

• Fissures: Affects part of the thickness of the bone.
• Greenstick Fractures: Bending fractures in flexible bones (children).
• Bamboo Fractures: Children's fractures generated by compression, produced by a wrinkling of the bone cortex.

Complete Fracture: Affecting the entire thickness of the bone. It can be divided into:

• Simple Fractures: They have a single line and there is no displacement.
• Complete Fractures with Displacement: One fragment deflects relative to the other. If the normal alignment of the longitudinal axis of the bone is lost, it is said to be angled (may be in varus or valgus).

Depending

Factors Influencing Earth's Climate

Variations in Earth's climate and atmospheric conditions are influenced by several key factors:

• Solar Variation Cycles: Changes in the Sun's energy output.
• Earth's Orbital Parameters: Variations in Earth's tilt (obliquity) and orbital changes (eccentricity and precession), which affect the distribution and intensity of solar radiation received.
• Atmospheric Composition: Alterations in the concentration of atmospheric gases and particles due to natural processes (e.g., increased photosynthesis, volcanic eruptions) and human activities.

Atmospheric Layers and Structure

According to its dynamic and thermal behavior, Earth's atmosphere is divided into the following distinct layers:

The Troposphere

The **troposphere**... Continue reading "Earth's Atmosphere: Layers, Climate Factors, and Key Definitions" »

Water Pollution

Water pollution is defined as the action or effect of introducing materials or forms of energy, or inducing water conditions that result in a harmful alteration of its quality, affecting its subsequent use and ecological balance.

A. Origin and Types of Water Pollution

Based on the way pollution occurs, we distinguish between point source and diffuse pollution:

• Diffuse Pollution (Non-Point Source): Its origin is not clearly defined and it does not stem from a single, large area emitting source.
• Point Pollution (Point Source): This is produced by a particular, identifiable focus or issuer and affects a specific area.

Sources of Water Contamination

Natural Contamination

Natural contamination refers to the presence of substances in the... Continue reading "Water Pollution: Sources, Factors, and Contaminant Effects" »

Perennial Saline Lakes

Perennial saline lakes are common in tropical and subtropical regions with relatively low rainfall. They include:

• Soda lakes (trona: Na₂CO₃.HNaCO₃.2H₂O)
• Sulphate lakes (mirabilite: Na₂SO₄.10H₂O)
• Chloride lakes (halite: NaCl)
• Nitrate lakes (Chile salpeter: NaNO₃)

Ephemeral Lakes

Ephemeral lakes form in dry regions where seasonal effects and evaporation play an important role in the sedimentation pattern. They include:

• Playa lakes
• Salt pans
• Oxbow lakes

Sub-Environments and Processes

Stratification

As the upper water layer is heated by the sun, an exponential temperature curve is expected in lakes, but this is seldom the case due to various factors. Evaporation at the surface cools the uppermost layer and produces convection currents,... Continue reading "Lake Environments: Types, Processes, and Sedimentation" »

Environmental Challenges: Spain & Global Resources

Biodiversity Defined

Biodiversity, or biological diversity, refers to the number and variety of species within a specific spatial area. Spain holds the distinction of being the European Union country with the greatest biodiversity.

Understanding Climate Change

Climate change is primarily driven by human actions, notably the greenhouse effect and the depletion of the ozone layer. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere attack the ozone layer, leading to an increased incidence of ultraviolet and infrared radiation from the sun. These factors contribute to a rise in the Earth's average temperature, posing significant risks such as melting ice caps, rising sea levels, and the submersion of... Continue reading "Global Environmental Challenges: Resources & Conservation" »

What is Soil? An Introduction to Pedology

Soil is the interface between the geosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere. The study of soil is known as Pedology (Soil Science).

Soil Formation: The Three Stages

Soil formation is a complex process divided into three main stages:

Stage 1: Formation of the C Horizon

Rocks experience both chemical and physical weathering, leading to a more or less altered bedrock. This altered material is also known as the mantle of alteration or the C horizon.

Stage 2: Development of the A Horizon

This stage involves the establishment of a progressive living horizon, with contributions from:

• Pioneer settlers (lichens, mosses, etc.)
• Microorganisms and heterotrophic organisms
• Higher plants and animals

These organisms contribute to... Continue reading "Understanding Soil: Formation, Properties, and Conservation" »

Global Health Challenges

Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases

According to the WHO (World Health Organization), from the onset of AIDS to SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), the rate of new infectious diseases has been approximately one per year. These emerging diseases are often transmitted by unknown pathogens. Some of these germs have long been confined to their natural habitats before coming into contact with humans. This is believed to have occurred with devastating hemorrhagic fevers such as Ebola.

Other cases involve re-emerging diseases, where major infectious diseases of the past, dangerous to the human species, have resurfaced due to mutations. Some of these recrudescent diseases are now affecting regions of the world where... Continue reading "Disease Emergence and Flood Impact: Global Challenges" »

Raw Materials and Industrial Inputs

These resources are offered by nature and are processed by industry to turn them into finished products. Depending on their source, raw materials can be classified into:

Classification of Raw Materials

• Mineral Raw Materials

  These are part of the Earth's crust. They are extracted from underground mines, which can be subterranean or open pit. Minerals can be classified as metallic (from which metals are extracted), non-metallic, and energy minerals (which provide energy sources).

• Vegetable Raw Materials

  Examples include food products, forest products, and rubber.

• Animal Raw Materials

  Examples include wool, hides, and fish.

Sources of Energy

Energy sources are mainly divided into two groups:

• Non-renewable energy sources: