Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Ecological Footprint and its Impact

The impact of a species or population on the environment depends on the number of individuals it is composed of and the environmental impact of each individual. The ecological footprint is an indicator that measures the soil surface in hectares needed to produce resources consumed by a citizen or a population, as well as to absorb and detoxify the waste generated. These areas are located where they are needed.

The average ecological footprint is calculated by dividing the existing productive land on Earth by 6 billion. The average consumption per inhabitant per year is 2.8 hectares. Three consequences we can extract are:

• Slow population growth
• Cannot be extended to all
• Reducing consumption

Renewable Energy Sources

Solar

Oil: Composition

Oil molecules are primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen. Major hydrocarbon deposits are natural. These oil and gas fuels are mixtures of various types of oil.

Formation and Location of Hydrocarbon Deposits

Oil and natural gas form from the decomposed remains of marine organisms accumulated in seafloor sediments. Three conditions are needed:

• Source Rock: A fine-grained sedimentary rock where organic matter decomposes.
• Reservoir Rock: A porous rock where oil accumulates after migration.
• Trap: An impermeable rock that prevents oil from escaping to the surface.

The source rock requires rapid burial of marine organisms to prevent decomposition. Conversion starts at temperatures between 40°C and 60°C when sediments are buried 1-2... Continue reading "Hydrocarbon Deposits: Formation, Exploitation, and Environmental Impact" »

Optimal Tilt and Orientation of a Solar Collector in Cadiz

This document discusses the optimal tilt and orientation for a flat plate solar collector located in the province of Cadiz, Spain. The orientation will be towards the equator, which, in the Northern Hemisphere, means facing south.

The ideal tilt angle of a solar collector varies with latitude. For Cadiz, located at approximately 36º latitude, the base tilt is 36º. However, the inclination can be adjusted by ±15º depending on the specific application, usage, and architectural integration criteria. A steeper tilt favors solar incidence during the winter months, while a shallower tilt promotes solar incidence during spring and summer.

Essential Components of a Flat Plate Solar Collector

A... Continue reading "Solar Thermal Collectors: Design, Tilt, and Manufacturers" »

Item 4: Introduction to Earth's Dynamics

The movement of the Earth's crust (lithosphere) is continuous, but until just a century ago, it was not understood. Erosion, earthquakes, landslides, and volcanoes were observed, but it was thought that the Earth was eternally unchanging. There are many theories that attempt to explain the dynamics of the land, which are discussed below.

The Theory of Continental Drift

The idea that the continents had moved in the past was revived when the first maps of the East Coast of South America were created, and it was observed that it matched the West African coast. Later, the following information was discovered:

• Prehistoric, identical continents are now widely separated.
• The same types of rocks from the same period

1) Topography

The set of principles and procedures to represent a land surface, including natural and artificial shapes and details.

a) Planimetry

Focuses on the projection of the field on a horizontal plane.

b) Altimetry

Measures level differences in points of the terrain.

Planimetry and Altimetry: Together, they allow for the creation of a topographical map, showing both position and elevation of land points.

2) Forms and Definitions of Land

a) Geoid

The gravitational equipotential surface closest to the average sea level.

b) Ellipsoid

A mathematical model of the Earth formed by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis.

c) Geographical Features

• CENID: An imaginary point at the intersection of all planes perpendicular to the ground.
• Nadir: The point diametrically

Water Resources: A Vital and Limited Resource

Water is a dominant factor for the development of life. It is a limited resource, since the available quantity is conditioned by its unequal distribution in space and time. Nearly two billion people live in countries facing water stress. The problems presented with respect to water as a resource are the increase in consumption and scarcity. Agricultural practices, industrial and urban activities, as well as the increase of population and improvement in the quality of life in society, increase water requirements.

Solutions for Sustainable Water Use

• Improving efficiency in water use
• Sharing available water in solidarity
• Introducing new technologies in industries
• Implementing water policies based on efficiency,

Environmental Definitions

Here are some fundamental environmental definitions:

Aquifer

An aquifer is an underground water reservoir. Aquifers form when precipitation water filters through the ground, finds a waterproof layer, and accumulates on it. Their waters can be discharged through rivers and springs or directly into the sea.

Acid Rain

Acid rain is precipitation with a higher degree of acidity than normal. It occurs when emissions of sulfur and nitrogen mix with water vapor in the air and become diluted solutions of sulfuric acid and nitric acid, which then fall to the Earth's surface as rain. It causes changes in vegetation, soil, water, and buildings.

The Ozone Layer

The ozone layer lies between 15 and 55 km in height and filters ultraviolet... Continue reading "Key Environmental and Economic Concepts Explained" »

Plate Tectonics and Earth's Structure

Plate Boundaries

Mid-ocean ridges are constructive plate boundaries where lithospheric plates separate, leading to ocean growth.

Oceanic trenches are destructive plate boundaries where the oceanic lithospheric plate subducts beneath another plate.

Earth's Crust

Continental crust extends 30 to 70 km deep beneath continents.

Oceanic crust extends 5 to 10 km deep beneath oceans.

Three major ocean ridges exist in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Antarctic Oceans.

Volcanoes

Magma

Magma, molten rock found deep within the Earth's crust, can withstand temperatures of 1000 to 1200 °C.

Magma composition consists of silicate rock, gases, and water vapor.

Magma viscosity is determined by the amount of silica (SiO2); higher silica content... Continue reading "Exploring Earth's Dynamic Processes: Crust, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes" »

Sustainable Development

According to the Brundtland report, where this term first appeared, sustainable development is "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." This requires a respectful attitude towards all people, all living beings, and all ecosystems.

This involves:

1. Consuming resources below their regeneration capacity.
2. Disposing of waste in quantities that nature can absorb.
3. Utilizing renewable energy sources.
4. Ensuring development reaches the entire population.

Sustainable development has three components: economic growth, environmental conservation, and social equity. It's important not to confuse the concepts of growth and development. Economic growth refers... Continue reading "Sustainable Development, Atmosphere, and Pollution" »

Parthenon: An Architectural Marvel

I observe the front, main elevation, facade, or side elevations of a structure. The primary material used in this construction is marble. A significant portion of the outer space is visible, along with a part of the building's interior. The structure rests upon a base (crepidoma) with steps (crepis) extending along its entire perimeter.

Structural Elements

The load-bearing elements include walls and columns. Where visible, the wall presents meticulously matched stones, indicating a regular ashlar construction. The columns do not directly rest on the stylobate. The shaft features sharp edges or ridges, separated by grooves. The capital comprises an abacus, echinus, and collarino.

Supporting elements include the... Continue reading "Parthenon & Maison Carrée: Ancient Greek Temples" »