Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

External geological agents: External agents, which "destroy" the relief by wearing down the mountains and filling the lower parts of the terrestrial surface. They include: the atmosphere, wind, living organisms, and water (in all its forms: rivers, streams, rain, glaciers, oceans, etc.). External geological processes are: erosion, transportation, and sedimentation.

Physical and Chemical Processes: Changes in temperature, frost, the action of plant roots, wind, and water movements.

Sediments: These are the eroded materials that are deposited when there is no further transport occurring.

Internal Geological Processes: Earthquakes and volcanoes.

External Geological Processes: Wind, ocean tides, rivers, ice, temperature changes, atmospheric components,... Continue reading "Understanding External and Internal Geological Processes" »

Defining Lines and Planes in 3D Space

Plane Definitions

• Plane defined by two intersecting lines

  Formed by the direction vectors of both lines and their intersection point.

• Plane through a point, parallel to another plane

  Take the normal vector of the parallel plane and the given point.

• Plane through a point, perpendicular to a line

  The given point and the direction vector of the line will be the normal vector of the plane.

• Plane through a point (x₀, y₀, z₀), perpendicular to two planes

  The normal vector n₃ is the cross product of the normal vectors of the two planes: n₃ = n₂ × n₁. The plane's equation is: n₃ₓ(x - x₀) + n₃ᵧ(y - y₀) + n₃𝓩(z - z₀) = 0.

Line Definitions

• Line through a point, parallel to two planes

  The direction

Understanding Weather Elements

These are the components that characterize the climate and interact in the lower layers of the atmosphere. They are modified by various factors.

Temperature: A Key Element

Temperature is the degree or level of heat in the air or environment, measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or Fahrenheit (°F). Average temperature and thermal oscillation (amplitude) can be measured. These can be represented by maps using lines (isotherms) or choropleth maps (using isometric inks).

The incidence of solar radiation (oblique or vertical) determines different thermal zones on the Earth's surface.

Factors Affecting Temperature

Temperature variations are influenced by:

• Proximity to the sea: Moderating effect on coasts, more extreme inland.

Equatorial Climate

Location

• Amazon Basin
• Congo Basin
• Indonesia

Temperature

High temperatures, around 25°C year-round. Hot weather.

Temperature Range

Low thermal amplitude, less than 3°C difference.

Rainfall

High and regular precipitation, more than 2000 mm per year.

Vegetation

Rainforest.

Dry Tropical / Monsoon Climate

Location

• Central Africa
• India
• Central America
• Areas surrounding the Equatorial climate zone

Temperature

High temperatures, greater than 20°C year-round. Hot weather.

Temperature Range

Small thermal amplitude, between 3°C and 10°C.

Rainfall

Irregular precipitation with two distinct seasons: a wet summer and a dry winter. High annual rainfall, typically 1000 mm to over 2000 mm.

Vegetation

Tropical Gallery Forest, Savanna.

Warm Desert Climate

Location

• Sahara

Wind Dynamics: Key Factors

The Pressure Force

The wind that originates and is called gradient wind. Wind speed is directly proportional to the pressure difference between points.

The Coriolis Force

This force is a result of the Earth's rotation. A mass of air originating from the north, through inertia, retains its direction and speed along the meridian. However, an observer in the Northern Hemisphere, moving with Earth's rotation, will find this air mass increasingly deflecting to the right of its original direction. Conversely, in the Southern Hemisphere, the deflection is to the left. This phenomenon is the effect of the Coriolis force.

The Friction Force

Air masses close to the ground constantly experience friction from the Earth's surface. The... Continue reading "Wind Dynamics: Forces and Measurement Techniques" »

Prevention

Acting on the Source

• Appropriate facility design
• Siding with cabins or curtains
• Partial machine isolation
• Screens and faders
• Regular monitoring of transmission area and radiation intensity

Action on the Environment

• Anti-reflective wall coatings
• Control of temperature, humidity, and ventilation
• Avoid concentrating multiple sources in one environment
• Delineation and marking of danger areas

Acting on Work Organization

• Reduce exposure time based on danger level
• Authorize access only to permitted personnel

Acting on People

• Inform and educate workers
• Use appropriate safeguards (e.g., goggles, absorbent clothing)
• Risk-based health screenings

Workplace Radon, Thoron, and Radiation Exposure

• Underground mines and tourist caves
• Spas and indoor pools
• Tunnels and

Vital Functions of Living Beings

Nutrition

The function by which living beings utilize food substances to produce energy.

Relation

The function by which all living beings relate to the environment and respond to stimuli.

Reproduction

The function by which every living being is capable of producing similar beings.

Chemical Composition of Living Beings

Bioelements

These are the chemical elements that form part of living beings.

Classification by Abundance

They are preferentially classified as:

• Fundamental Bioelements
• Secondary Bioelements
• Trace Elements (Oligoelements)

Biomolecules

These are the molecules that form part of living beings. They can be:

• Organic: Large molecules characterized by long chains of carbon atoms.
• Inorganic: Small molecules that do not contain

Earth's Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth. It is made up of nitrogen, oxygen, and 1% argon, CO2, neon, helium, ozone, dust, and water vapor.

• Troposphere: The layer in contact with the ground, between 10 and 11 km high. It is responsible for the greenhouse effect and meteorological phenomena. The temperature decreases with height.
• Stratosphere: Extends to 45 km altitude. Its temperature increases with height. The ozone layer, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation, is located here.
• Mesosphere: Extends to approximately 80 km in height. This is where meteorites falling to Earth become incandescent and turn into shooting stars.
• Thermosphere: This layer reaches 500 km in height and contains ionized gases.
• Exosphere:

Marxism

Marxism is a philosophy with a close relationship to science. Unlike speculative philosophies following the Platonic tradition, it is politically implemented. It is also a materialist philosophy, a dialectical materialism, which conceives matter not as inert and determined by mechanical laws, but as something dynamic and evolving, with its own internal contradictions as the driving force. Founded by Karl Marx, its study concerns the historical evolution of human societies, emphasizing historical materialism, which focuses on the various modes of production societies use to create their material existence. Historical development is linked to the ideologies and policies of socialism and communism. Its influence on the Frankfurt School... Continue reading "Understanding Marxism, Nihilism, Phenomenology, and Existentialism" »

Fundamental Earth Science Terminology

Map Scale

The relationship between a measured length on a map and the corresponding length in reality.

Topographical Map

A type of base map representing the physical and human aspects of an area, making them more prominent.

Solstice

A time in Earth's orbit when the Sun is perpendicular to the Tropics.

Equinox

A time in Earth's orbit when the Sun is perpendicular to the Equator.

Meseta

A very large, flat surface elevated above sea level.

Socket

Paleozoic platform rocks forming the basis of the relief.

Cordillera (or highlight skiing)

A high-elevation mountain range that emerged during the Tertiary Orogeny.

Sedimentary Basin (or depression)

A depressed zone formed during the Tertiary period and filled with sediments.

Relief