Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

The Climate of Spain

Spain is characterized by a variety of climates. The main ones are:

• Oceanic
• Mediterranean
• Mountain

The Canary Islands have a unique subtropical climate.

1. Oceanic Climate

This climate is found in the Cantabrian Mountains and Galicia. It features:

• Abundant Rainfall: Regular and evenly distributed throughout the year, exceeding 800mm annually. This gentle rainfall promotes soil infiltration.
• Mild Temperatures: The coast experiences a low thermal range (9-12°C) due to the sea's influence, with cool summers (22°C) and mild winters (6-10°C). Inland areas have more moderate temperatures, with colder winters (below 6°C).

2. Mediterranean Climate

Located south of the oceanic climate zone, this climate encompasses the Balearic Islands,... Continue reading "Climate of Spain: Diverse Weather Patterns" »

Earth's Structure and Composition

a) False, the mantle has a semi-plastic behavior (asthenosphere). b) True. c) False, the mantle lies between the crust and the core, approximately 2900km in depth. d) False, the lithosphere is a solid layer where magma currents originate. e) False, the temperature inside the nucleus is about 4500 º C.

The lithosphere is a solid surface layer that surrounds the Earth. It has an average thickness of 100km and consists of the solid crust and the upper mantle layer (residual mantle), which lies above the asthenosphere.

Tectonic Plates and Their Movement

A tectonic plate is a piece of the lithosphere that can be pushed and moved by magma currents beneath it. This movement produces earthquakes at constructive plate... Continue reading "Understanding Earth's Structure, Tectonics, and Geological Processes" »

What Are Fossils?

Fossils are the mineralized remains of living things, including imprints or traces of their activity. Most commonly, the hard and less alterable parts of animals and plants fossilize, such as bones, shells, and teeth. In many cases, the body or its remains have disappeared completely, but its shape is imprinted on a rock as a mold, as seen with fossil shells.

Impressions or casts left by soft-bodied organisms like worms and squid are also considered fossils. Other examples include footprints, tracks, tubes or galleries built as housing, and coprolites (fossilized feces). An entire animal or plant does not usually fossilize unless a series of special conditions allows it to be encased in materials that preserve it from decomposition.... Continue reading "Understanding Fossils: Formation, Dating, and Key Insights" »

Geological Deformation: Types and Structures

Types of Material Deformation

• Elastic Deformation: Material changes shape when subjected to stress but recovers its original shape when stress ceases.
• Plastic Deformation: Material deforms when subjected to stress and does not regain its original shape when the stress stops.
• Fracture: The effort causes the material to lose its internal cohesion and break.

Strike and Dip

• Strike: The angle measured in a horizontal plane between true north and the strike line of a geological feature (e.g., a bedding plane or fault plane).
• Dip: The angle between a geological surface (e.g., a bedding plane or fault plane) and a horizontal plane. It is measured perpendicular to the strike and indicates the direction a ball would

Geochemistry: Understanding the Earth's Composition and Dynamics

Earth's Layers Based on Chemical Composition

1. Crust: Extends to the Mohorovicic seismic discontinuity. It is a solid layer composed of silicified rock. There are two types:
   • Continental crust
   • Oceanic crust (thinner and denser)
2. Mantle: Located between the Moho and Gutenberg discontinuities. It consists of silicate rocks that are slightly denser than the crust. It is divided into the upper and lower mantle.
3. Core: The innermost layer of the Earth, beneath the Gutenberg seismic discontinuity. It is composed of metal. The Lehmann seismic discontinuity separates the outer core from the inner core.

Earth's Layers Based on Dynamic Properties

1. Lithosphere: Composed of rigid and fragile rock.

Natural Hazards and Disaster Factors

Risks Associated with Subsoil Types

Land subsidence is a process that usually does not cause direct victims but leads to significant economic losses.

• Expansive Soils: These soils can swell, compromising the stability of foundations and structures.
• Karstic Risks: Due to the morphology and linearity of limestone terrain, these risks can generate ground subsidence.

Risks Associated with Snow and Ice

• In very cold areas, the presence of snow and glaciers determines phase changes in the volume of soil water and rocks, causing swelling, cracking, and disintegration.
• The presence of glacial ice masses conditions the stable or unstable nature of associated risks.
• In Spain, risks associated with snow and ice are limited to

Elements of Weather

Heat Stroke

Heat stroke is the amount of solar radiation received by the Earth's surface. In Spain, it exceeds 2000 hours of sunshine per year.

Cloudiness

Cloudiness is the state of the atmosphere where the sky is covered by clouds. The area with the most cloudiness is the Cantabrian coast, and the area with the least is the Guadalquivir valley.

Air Temperature

Temperature is the degree of heat in the air. On maps, it is represented by isotherms. The mildest temperatures are near the sea and decrease inland.

Annual Temperature Range

The annual temperature range is the difference between the average temperature of the warmest month and the coldest month.

Frosts

Frosts occur when the air temperature is below 0°C.

Irradiation

Irradiation... Continue reading "Understanding Weather Elements: A Comprehensive Look" »

Wastewater Treatment

Wastewater treatment is a widely used plant purification method. Separating gray water from black water (sewage) can reduce costs, as can removing detergents and oils. Purifying water involves a series of physical and chemical processes, which vary depending on the order in which they are applied.

Wastewater Treatment Plant Classification

• Primary Treatment: Primarily removes inorganic solids, often with the aid of adjuvants.
• Secondary Treatment: Removes organic matter using microorganisms.
• Tertiary Treatment: Eliminates specific components or purifies microorganisms.

Primary Treatment Processes

Sand Chamber

Mineral residue is removed.

Sedimentation

After removing mineral waste, water passes through a sedimentation tank where organic... Continue reading "Wastewater Purification Methods" »

Understanding Earth's Tectonic Plates

Types of Lithospheric Plates

• Mixed Plates: Formed by both continental and oceanic lithosphere (e.g., Asian, African plates).
• Oceanic Plates: Formed solely by oceanic lithosphere (e.g., the Pacific Plate).

Plate Boundaries: Where Plates Interact

Plate boundaries are points of connection between plates, directly influencing land relief and geological activity. They are categorized by their movement:

• Divergent Boundaries: Plates separate.
• Convergent Boundaries: Plates collide.
• Neutral (Transform) Boundaries: Plates slide horizontally past each other.

Divergent Boundaries: Plate Separation

The separation of plates at divergent boundaries produces fractures in the rocks and gives rise to volcanism.

• Oceanic Ridges: Submarine

Dehesa and Trees

The grove is essential in the pasture. In addition to the so-called "tree effect", which changes the microclimate, the influence on vegetation makes it early and late.

This appears to be due to the possibility of extraction of nutrients from deep horizons, and thermal differences of the crown and roots.

According to Law 7/2010, of July 14, regarding the Dehesa:

a) Formation of open stands:

A forest area occupied by a layer of trees with a canopy cover between 5% and 75%, composed mainly of oaks, cork oaks, and olive trees, and occasionally other trees, allowing the development of an essentially herbaceous layer (grass) to be used for livestock or game species.

b) Pasture: A farm constituted mostly by the formation of open stands,... Continue reading "Dehesa Ecosystem: Trees, Pastures, and Sustainability" »