Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Understanding Masonry Construction Techniques

Dry Stone Masonry

This type of masonry involves stacking rubble stones without using any mortar, or at most, using mud/clay. The stones are worked and carefully placed to fit closely together, ensuring that joints and gaps are minimal. These walls can be built with a slight incline or batter, typically between 1/7 and 1/5 of their height, for stability.

Mortared Masonry Walls

These walls are constructed using manufactured or natural stones laid without specific shaping, but employing mortar for bedding the stones and filling the joints. Key considerations include:

• Ensuring each rubble stone rests stably on the one below it.
• Trimming stones as needed to achieve a good fit.
• Using smaller stones, known as

Earth's Mantle: Structure and Composition

The middle layer is currently not able to be pierced. The survey in the Kola peninsula reaches 13 km deep. The Bavaria project in another poll is 14 km, where the inconvenience can be saved because the temperature does not exceed 300ºC, otherwise, the drill bit would melt. Mantle rocks were put on the surface through favorable tectonic structures. In the mantle, we must distinguish two layers:

• The upper mantle from 30 to 670 km of depth.
• The lower mantle from 670 to 2,900 km.

The Repetti discontinuity separates them. The predominant rocks are peridotites, which have the same density in the upper mantle. They outcrop in the mountain ranges in the form of ophiolite complexes. Their typical minerals are olivine,

Landscape Patterns

Elements of the Earth's surface, including biotic and anthropic.

Relief

The aspect of the land area outside of biotic elements.

Oceanic Crust

Basalt, covered with water almost in its entirety.

Continental Crust

Granite, thicker, less dense, mostly out on the oceans, and continents form.

Oceanic Ridges

(Points creating crust) Alignments of volcanoes with intense volcanic activity. Fissures emit lava through cracks.

Oceanic Trenches

Areas of intense seismic activity, as this point in the oceanic crust sinks into the mantle (point of destruction of crust).

Continental Crust: Mountain Ranges

Alignments of mountains formed by folding the material or volcanic activity.

Continental Shelves

Part of the continental crust covered by the sea.

Continental

Reliefs of Argentina

To the west, the mountain area presents new and older structures in central and eastern Argentina. Youthful structures in some high altitude regions have development exceeding 6000 meters. This structure forms the Cordillera de los Andes, and its ridges and mountains are oriented in a north-south direction. To the east, the height of these elevations is decreasing. To the south of Argentina, in the Patagonian forest ecoregion, the Andes begin to lose altitude and dive under the sea east of Tierra del Fuego. Toward the center and east of the country are older masifs or plateaus that reach 2500 meters in height. These structures are much older than the Cordillera of the Andes, so their slopes are less steep. Many of these... Continue reading "Argentina's Diverse Landscapes: Reliefs, Resources, and Ecoregions" »

Wastewater Sludge Treatment: Chemical Processes

Types of Sludge in a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP)

• Primary (Decanting)
• Secondary
• Mixed

Other Sludge in a WWTP

• Fats and Oils
• Separator-Flotation
• Precipitation
• Trickling Filters

Sludge Treatment Goals

• Decrease water content
• Removal of organic matter to the solid phase for easy evacuation from the WWTP

Treatments Used

• Thickening

  • Gravity
  • Flotation

• Stabilization

  • Biological
  • Chemical

• Dehydration

  • Centrifugation
  • Filtration

Thickening Objectives

Reducing the volume of water to be treated in subsequent treatments.

Stabilization Objectives

Elimination of biodegradable organic matter present in the sludge, so that no subsequent decompositions generate odors at the final destination.

Dehydration Objectives

Achieving a suitable dryness... Continue reading "Wastewater Sludge & Biological Waste Treatment Methods" »

Demographic Concepts

Census

An official statistical document that sets the population count, collecting demographic and socioeconomic data of the residents. For example, it is realized every 5 years and finished in 6.

Concentrated Population

A population that is primarily gathered around a town and not scattered in the field. It explains how the population is divided in the territory. For example, in Mallorca, the population is concentrated.

Disseminated Population

A population where homes are primarily scattered in the field and not in urban groups. It explains how the population is divided in the territory. For example, in Ibiza, the population is disseminated.

Fertility Rate

The relationship between the number of babies born alive in a year x 1000,... Continue reading "Demographic Concepts: Population, Fertility, and Migration" »

Plastics

Plastics are materials composed of polymers, consisting of long chains of atoms that contain carbon.

Types of Plastics

• Natural Plastics: Directly obtained from vegetable raw materials (cellulose and cellophane, latex) or animal (casein).
• Synthetic or Artificial Plastics: Made from compounds derived from petroleum, natural gas, or coal.

Industrial processing of these raw materials and compounds is called polymerization.

During the production of plastics, fillers are added (materials such as glass fiber, textile fibers, silica, paper, filler, or sawdust). Some additives (chemicals) are also incorporated.

As we have seen, properties such as elasticity, rigidity, toughness, and flexibility are specific to certain plastics.

Most plastics are not... Continue reading "Types of Plastics, Fibers, and Construction Materials" »

Urban Planning Models

Ensanche - The Hippodamic Model

Early models for expanding cities with old layouts proposed a Hippodamic growth system. In Spain, this model was used in Madrid's widening plan and in Barcelona with Cerdà's plan.

Cerdà's Plan

Cerdà's plan proposed a smaller grid than the original Hippodamic model, with a hierarchy of roads. Over time, this evolved into the Salamanca district, which became obsolete. The urban development was regulated by legislation, including the types of buildings allowed in each block, establishing a social organization among buildings.

The approach was to create courtyards within blocks. Due to their small size, these courtyards were primarily for ventilation and suffered from scale issues over time. The... Continue reading "Urban Planning Models: Ensanche & Linear City" »

Sierra de Perija

Location: The Sierra de Perija begins in the middle of the river valley and extends slightly north of 11 degrees latitude, where the Oca mountains transition into the Guajira Peninsula lowlands.

Constitution and Relief

Predominantly composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks (Precambrian, Cenozoic), the area is difficult to access and settle due to the absence of alluvial valleys and terraces. The altitude reaches approximately 4000 meters, with peaks exceeding 3750 meters at Tetaria. Key sectors include the Motilones range, Valledepur, Sierra de Perija, and Goose mountains.

Vegetation, Climate, and Hydrography

The landscape features abundant forest vegetation, especially at higher elevations, due to high rainfall. The high mountains... Continue reading "Geographic Formations: Sierra de Perija, Lara-Falcón, Barquisimeto" »

Earth's Layers and Composition

Core

The Earth's core, a zone of higher density and temperature, occupies 17% of the Earth's volume. The inner core is denser than the outer core.

Mantle

The mantle, with a thickness of 2900 km, occupies 82% of the Earth's volume. It has a lower density than the core. Convection currents in the asthenosphere, a part of the upper mantle, drive the movement of tectonic plates in the lithosphere.

Lithosphere

The lithosphere, the outermost layer, is less dense and colder than the mantle. It forms the oceanic and continental crust. The main constituents of the crust are rocks, which are solid, natural aggregates of one or more minerals.

Tectonic Plate Movement and its Effects

Tectonic plates move at a very slow velocity. The... Continue reading "Earth's Structure and Dynamic Processes: A Comprehensive Overview" »