Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

The English Vowel System

In phonetics, "vowel" refers to a vowel sound or a letter representing it in writing. Vowels are speech sounds produced without obstructing airflow from the lungs, allowing breath to pass freely through the mouth. Vowels are always voiced (vocal cords vibrate).

The English alphabet has six vowel letters: a, e, i, o, u, y (or five if Y is considered a consonant). Y can represent a consonant/semivowel (yes, yard) or a vowel (mystery, try, play). All vowel sounds together form the vowel system.

Essential Elements in Vowel Sound Classification

• Tongue Position: Front, back, and central vowels.
• Tongue Height: Close and open vowels.
• Lip Position: Rounded and unrounded vowels.
• Spread vowels.
• Close and open lip-rounding.

The Received... Continue reading "Understanding the English Vowel System: A Comprehensive Analysis" »

Carbon Cycle

CO2 is produced by combustion of biomass and fossilized organic matter.

Animals such as reef-building corals and molluscs have hard parts composed of CaCO3 and can become fossilized in limestone.

Carbon Return to Atmosphere

Processes by which carbon returns to the atmosphere include:

• Combustion
• Oxidation
• Respiration
• Volcanic eruption
• Decomposition
• Release from the Ocean

Carbon Reservoirs and Sinks

Major reservoirs and sinks for carbon include: coal, soil, gas/oil, limestone, and the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide is converted by autotrophs into carbohydrates via photosynthesis and returned to the atmosphere as CO2 through respiration (these are carbon fluxes).

Carbon in Aquatic Ecosystems

In aquatic ecosystems, carbon exists as dissolved CO2 and... Continue reading "Carbon Cycle and Climate Change Explained" »

White dwarfs are the stars near the lower left that are small in radius and appear white in color because of their high temperatures. A main-sequence star’s mass determines both its luminosity and its surface temperature. More massive stars live much longer lives because they fuse hydrogen at a much greater rate. Giants and supergiants are stars that are nearing the ends of their lives. White dwarf stars are the cooling embers of stars that have exhausted their nuclear fusion fuel. Stars are born in cold, dense clouds of gas whose pressure cannot resist gravitational contraction. A molecular cloud fragment heats up as gravity makes it contract, producing a protostar at its center. Conservation of angular momentum ensures that protostars rotate... Continue reading "The Life Cycle of Stars" »

Consonants. In phonetic materials, the noun "consonant" has the following meanings: a consonant sound; a letter representing a consonant sound in writing. Consonants are speech sounds produced by creating an obstruction (completely or partially) in the mouth for the air flow from the lungs, or the mouth passage is so narrow that the air is expelled with audible friction. There are 20 consonant letters in the English alphabet. They represent 24 consonant sounds.

Consonants are generally classified according to three basic dimensions:

1. The state of the glottis. This refers to whether or not the vocal cords vibrate in the production of the sound. If the vocal cords vibrate, the resulting sound will be voiced; if they don’t vibrate, the sound will

Natural Stone

River Rocks

Smooth and round. Used for decoration and pavements, especially in areas where children play.

Crushed Rocks

Irregular edges provide more friction. Used for paths or roads.

Types of Stone

Limestone

Porous, off-white sedimentary rock. Usually white and may contain animal fossils. Used for sculptures, buildings, and breakwaters.

Marble

Hard, dense metamorphic rock naturally formed from limestone. Cool to the touch and known for its resistance to compression and weather conditions. Available in a variety of colors and has a shiny finish when polished. Used for sculptures, decorations, columns, floors, and kitchen countertops.

Granite

Igneous rock composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica. Formed by the crystallization of volcanic magma... Continue reading "Rocks, Stones, and Ceramics: A Comprehensive Look at Construction Materials" »

Hello, I’m Aner, and I am going to do a review about hydro energy power. This renewable energy comes from hydropower (or water power), which is the power using the energy of moving water (falling water or fast-running water).

Hydroelectric energy can be defined as a form of hydropower where the motion of running water (kinetic energy) is converted into electricity. Hydroelectric energy is potential energy that is converted to kinetic energy through the forces of gravitation, which again comes from solar energy, driving the water cycle around. Thus, it is the result of heat energy from the sun and the gravitational forces from the earth. The water cycle is driven directly by solar energy. When the sun heats the water in the ocean, some of the... Continue reading "Harnessing Hydropower: Benefits and Applications of Hydro Energy" »

Hadean Eon: 4500-4000 Million Years Ago

Geology:

• Intense volcanic activity
• Intense meteorite activity
• Moon formation
• First solid crust
• Formation of mantle and core

Climate:

• Atmosphere formation
• Hydrosphere formation

Archean Eon: 4000-2500 Million Years Ago

Geology:

• First microcontinents (plate tectonics)

Biosphere:

• First prokaryotic cells (bacteria and archaea)

Proterozoic Eon: 2500-541 Million Years Ago

Geology:

• First supercontinent (Rodinia)
• Active tectonic activity

Climate:

• Extreme climates (interior of Rodinia)
• Major glaciation at the end - "Snowball Earth"

Biosphere:

• First eukaryotic cells
• First cyanobacteria - photosynthesis - O2 production
• First multicellular organisms

Phanerozoic Eon: 541 Million Years Ago - Present

Paleozoic Era (541-252 Million Years Ago)

• Cambrian

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are produced from the weathering of preexisting rocks or biological matter.

• Detrital: Rocks produced from rock fragments.
• Chemical: Rocks produced by the precipitation of dissolved ions in water.
• Organic: Rocks produced by the accumulation of biological debris.

Sediments: Loose, solid particles originating from the weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks.

Deposition: The settling and coming to rest of transported materials and the accumulation of chemical or organic sediments, typically in water.

Lithification: The general term for processes converting loose sediments into sedimentary rock.

• Breccia: Coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rocks.
• Sandstone: Medium-grained clastic sedimentary rock.
• Shale: Fine-grained

Climate Change

Climate Change is the global variation in the Earth's climate. These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth, external forces or human activities. However, the influence that our activities have on the planet is called global warming. Because of this, the temperature has increased two degrees in the last thirty years and it will go on increasing in the future if we don't do anything. On the one hand, thousands of people have some responsibility for this change, but on the other hand there are other reasons, as for example: The greenhouse effect, To burn fossil's combustibles, The felling and burning of trees, The pollution that is caused by cars and factories. Some of these activities are giving off so much carbon... Continue reading "The Impact of Climate Change and How to Address It" »

Ozone Depletion

Problem

Ozone hole

The ozone layer

Causes

Chemicals

• Destructive agents: Freon and similar gases used in fridges, air conditioners, aerosols, etc.

Effects

• Skin cancer
• Death of ocean plankton
• Death of crustaceans
• Reduced harvest
• Increased smog
• Destruction of the ozone layer: More ultraviolet rays with an increase in skin cancer

Solutions

Substitution/replacement of these products.

Greenhouse Effect

Problem

Greenhouse effect

Causes

• Chemicals, gases
• Deforestation
• Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, peat)

Effects

• Melting of the polar ice caps
• Increase in the world sea level
• Floods
• Changes in the world climate
• Changes in world agriculture
• Droughts (long periods of very dry weather)
• Raising of average temperatures
• Increase in the Earth's global temperature

Solutions

• Reforestation
• Energy