Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Understanding Ethics: Core Concepts and Distinctions

Etymology and Definition of Ethics

Ethics is a concept derived from the Greek word "ethos," which means 'custom,' 'character,' 'habit,' or 'disposition.' Its etymology is similar to that of 'morality.'

Ethics vs. Morality: Key Differences

While 'ethics' and 'morality' are often used interchangeably, many scholars establish a primary distinction. Ethics is the philosophical discipline that studies morality, forming a core part of moral philosophy.

Ethics is the discipline that studies how human actions should be to be considered morally good. It examines how we ought to act to live a morally upright life and explores various systems where human happiness is often considered the ultimate goal.

The

Precambrian Eon (4.55 Billion to 541 Million Years Ago)

The Precambrian Eon encompasses Earth's earliest and longest period, from its formation to the dawn of complex life.

Archean Eon (4.0 to 2.5 Billion Years Ago)

Rocks from the Archean Eon constitute only about 3% of Earth's exposed surface, yet they hold crucial clues to our planet's infancy.

Geological Evolution

In the beginning, Earth was a vast ocean of magma, which gradually cooled, leading to the formation of the lithosphere.

Atmosphere Formation

The atmosphere formed from the degassing of the planet, with a composition very similar to primitive volcanic emanations: slightly reductive, virtually without oxygen, and rich in water vapor.

Hydrosphere Development

The hydrosphere formed from the... Continue reading "Earth's Ancient Eras: Precambrian and Paleozoic Transformations" »

Ancient Theaters, Amphitheaters, and Circuses

Participate in this topic by adding -nt- (1a and 2a) or -ent- (3a and 4a). Laudo to Laudants-NTIS, NTIS-time 2 timens, Capio-3 capients capientis, audio 4-audients audientis. // participant Amans, NTIS puerum-lover Pueri lovers, Puelles amantibus; etc. ...// cancertat may be involved or absolute (in ablative). // Translation (was, were, they came ... they saw ... what is ....)// Decumanus (EO) Cards (NS) //

The Greek Theatre was divided into three distinct sections:

• The stands where spectators were sitting.
• The orchestra, a circular space where the chorus sang and danced.
• The stage, a platform for actors and a building that served as a backdrop, storage, and dressing rooms (scaena).

The Romans followed... Continue reading "Ancient Theaters, Amphitheaters, and Circuses: A Comparative Study" »

The First Nuclei of Resistance

United Astur-Leones

In 718, Don Pelayo was elected king. In 722, the victory of Covadonga was achieved.

United Pamplona

Around the 9th century, Sancho I strengthened the new kingdom, extending it southward. His dynasty established the County of Aragon in 970.

County of Aragon

In the central Pyrenees, the counties of Aragon, Ribagorza, and Sobrarbe were formed. From 970, it was linked to Pamplona.

Catalan Counties

Located in the eastern Pyrenees, these counties were related to the Carolingian monarchy in the 8th and 9th centuries.

Main Stages of the Reconquest

8th-10th Centuries

Christian advances were limited to occupying nearly empty territories, such as the Duero basin and the northern Ebro.

11th and First Half of the 12th

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface. Here's a breakdown:

1. Solar radiation received: 100%.
2. 30% is reflected by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface.
3. 19% is absorbed by clouds and other atmospheric components.
4. 51% is absorbed by the land surface, which then heats up.
5. The heated surface emits infrared radiation.
6. Some of this infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases and re-emitted back to the surface.
7. The remaining infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere and dissipates into outer space.

Reconstructing Past Climates

Ice core records help reconstruct past climates:

1. Air bubbles trapped in ice: Ice accumulated in layers, particularly in Antarctica, contains small air bubbles. These bubbles reveal the

Understanding the Biosphere

The set of all living beings that inhabit the Earth is known as the biosphere. Currently, there are approximately 2 million species. An ecosystem is defined as all living beings that inhabit a specific place, where relationships are established between them and the physical environment they live in, along with the site characteristics and relationships between the environment and organisms.

Types of Ecosystems

There are several types of ecosystems:

• Aquatic Ecosystems: Rivers, ponds
• Terrestrial Ecosystems: Deserts, forests

The Ecosphere

The ecosphere is the set of all the ecosystems of our planet. The biosphere is the living part of the food ecosystem, where living beings perform vital functions. All living things need energy,... Continue reading "Understanding the Biosphere and Ecosystems on Earth" »

Freshwater: Rivers and Lakes

Physical Elements of the River Regime

1. Climate

The greatest precipitation occurs in the North, i.e., the oceanic climate of Spain. This results in the largest relative flow and the greater regularity of the rivers located in humid Spain, which occupies only 20% of the mainland.

2. Relief

Relief influences the size of the watersheds. In mountainous areas, watersheds are small and compartmentalized. Consequently, rivers in mountainous areas have little absolute flow. The relief influences the erosive capacity of rivers, which is related to the slope. It also influences decisions on whether or not to build hydraulic structures.

3. Ground

If the bedrock is waterproof (granite, clay, shale), much of the precipitation joins... Continue reading "Freshwater Ecosystems: Rivers and Lakes in Spain" »

Climatological Factors

Solar Radiation and Temperature

Temperature is the degree of heat in the atmosphere, originating from solar radiation. It is measured with a thermometer.

The caloric power of land radiation influences temperature.

Earth's Movements and Temperature Variation

• Rotation: Causes the day/night cycle, leading to daily temperature variations.
• Translation: Earth's orbit around the sun causes seasonal temperature variations.

Temperature is generally lower at higher altitudes due to decreased atmospheric mass and pressure.

Latitude

At higher latitudes, temperature is lower because less solar radiation is incident due to greater obliquity, leading to more caloric power loss.

Proximity to the Sea

Sea moisture moderates thermal amplitudes (differences... Continue reading "Geographical Fundamentals: Climate, Winds, and Population Dynamics" »

Fe-C Alloys: Alloy Elements

• Mn <1.6%: Descaling and desulfurization. Increases tensile strength (Re), ultimate tensile strength (Rm), fatigue resistance, and wear resistance. Decreases machinability.
• P <0.04%: Increases Re, Rm, wear resistance, and machinability. Decreases resilience.
• S <0.04%: Harmful in steels. Increases machinability and hardness, decreases elongation, resilience, and Re.
• Si <0.50%: Deoxidation, increasing Re, Rm, hardness, and wear resistance. Decreases machinability, resilience, and forgeability.

Influence of Alloy Elements

1. Mechanical Properties: Strengthening through training sequence and carbide precipitation.
2. Hardenability improvement.
3. Eutectoid temperature shifted downward, and less with higher %C alloy.
4. Grain Size:

Climate Change Impact in Asturias

A long-term global reduction in CO2 emissions by at least 50% in 2050 compared to 1990 is crucial.

Main Problems

Addressing the following challenges is essential:

• Reducing carbon emissions from developed countries.
• Promoting economic growth without harming the environment.
• Fostering cooperation to help developing countries.

Climate Change in Asturias: An Introduction

The Earth is interconnected, and changes in one area affect the whole. Climate change is worsening globally and is increasingly evident in Asturias. Adapting to these changes will require modifications to public works on the coast to address marine phenomena that exceed current artificial barriers, especially in eastern Asturias.

Effects of Climate Change

Warmer