Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

New Discoveries Shaping Our Understanding of the Cosmos

New discoveries.

The Immensity of the Universe

The Sun is a star in the Milky Way. Our galaxy is only one among the billions that make up the universe.

The Discovery of Deep Time

It was once believed that Earth was only about 6,000 years old.

Biological Evolution

It was once believed that each species had been created as we know it. Darwin's Origin of Species showed that species change over time.

New structure for the solar system.

Defining a Planet

A planet is a body orbiting a star, with a large mass and a spherical shape, that has cleared the area around its orbit. Its mass should be enough for its shape to be almost spherical, and it must have cleared its orbit.

That should explain a theory about... Continue reading "Unveiling the Universe: Discoveries, Solar System & Theories" »

Understanding and Classifying Risks

Risk: It may be called risk to any action, process, or event which might cause injury, disease, economic loss, or environmental damage. With the exception of wars, natural disasters such as hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes are those which reach a greater magnitude.

Classification of Risks

Cultural Technology Risk

Originating as a result of human error in productive activities (oil spills, radioactive leaks, industrial pollution,...) or lifestyles and socio-political activities (drugs, alcoholism, eating habits, smoking, war, dangerous sports,...).

Natural Hazards

Caused by natural causes (profound alteration of the environment as a result of natural processes). They can be:

Organic Hazards

Due to the action of... Continue reading "Understanding and Classifying Different Types of Risks" »

Fundamental Ecological Concepts

Population growth, technological advances, and other factors drive a growing consumption of natural resources, the generation of greater environmental impacts, and increasing environmental risks. An ecosystem is composed of all living beings that inhabit a given area, the interactions that develop between them, and the environment in which they live. The set of all ecosystems is the biosphere, i.e., all parts of the geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere where life develops. A carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals that an environment can sustain on a regular basis.

Population Growth vs. Resource Availability

The economist Thomas Robert Malthus argued in his Essay on the Principle of Population that... Continue reading "Population Growth, Resource Management, and Sustainability" »

Health Systems in Developing Nations: Challenges

• Increase spending on health for the whole population, both rich and poor.
• Achieve health coverage for the largest number of people possible. The state should provide health services for pregnancy, disease control, family planning, etc.
• Allocate resources efficiently, taking the initiative towards the prevention and study of diseases specific to these countries.

Determinants of Health

Our health depends on several factors, some unchangeable (hereditary) and others modifiable (lifestyle). Even with the advance of science, unchanging genes could stop being so soon. The elements involved in our health are the environment, personal lifestyle, biological factors, and the health system.

Environment

Global... Continue reading "Health Systems in Developing Nations: Challenges & Determinants" »

The River System

Much of the rainwater that falls on the Earth's surface is concentrated in flows or channeled river currents.

Fluvial Processes: Load, Capacity, and Competence

The action of a river (erosion, transport, and sedimentation) for a given speed depends on the size of the particles. The action of a river is defined by:

• Load (Freight): The actual amount of sediment a river carries at a certain time and place. This may include:
  • Bed Load: Larger particles carried by rolling (pebbles and gravel) or saltation (sand).
  • Suspended Load: Finest materials (clay and silt) carried within the water column.
  • Dissolved Load (Transport in Solution): Materials transported as soluble compounds (carbonates, sulfates, chlorides).
• Capacity: The theoretical maximum

Industrial Dust Definitions and Sampling Methods

Dust Characteristics

Dust: Solid particles generated by mechanical action such as crushing, handling, grinding, rapid impact, or detonation of organic materials like rock, ore, coal, wood, or plastic. These particles do not agglutinate spontaneously, do not spread easily, and remain suspended in the air for periods dependent on air speed.

Dust Classifications

• Nuisance Dust: Generally considered safe and not recognized as a direct cause of serious pathology, though general non-permissible limits apply.
• Toxic Dust: Dust that can be dangerous to the respiratory system, either by passing from the respiratory tract into the bloodstream or by directly acting on mucous membranes.
• Total Dust: Particles with

Landscape: Interaction of Geographical Agents

Natural and Human Elements

The landscape results from the interaction of various geographical agents. These include:

• Natural elements: Originating from the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere (e.g., relief, climate, vegetation, soil, water). The action of these agents creates natural landscapes, although such landscapes are now limited and reduced in extent.
• Human elements: Derived from anthropic factors such as settlement patterns, land use, communication networks, etc. Human actions give rise to humanized or cultural landscapes, which represent the majority today.

The landscape must be considered in a multidisciplinary, complex, and dynamic way.

Integrated Landscape Concept

The current... Continue reading "Landscape Dynamics and Spanish Heritage Protection History" »

Risk Assessment and Mitigation

Risk assessment and mitigation are based on studying the extent of damage caused by similar events in the past and related factors. It takes into account three factors:

Hazard (P)

Hazard is the probability of a phenomenon whose severity makes it potentially harmful in a particular place within a specific time interval. It is assessed from three perspectives:

• Severity: Assesses the magnitude of the event and is classified into different categories or degrees of danger (from zero to catastrophic) or within the maximum risk or medium risk.
• Time of return: Frequency or how often the event repeats.
• Geographic distribution: Areas hit by a historically specific phenomenon.

Vulnerability (V)

Vulnerability is the degree of effectiveness... Continue reading "Risk Assessment, Planning, and Mitigation Strategies" »

What is Sustainability?

The term "sustainable" refers to the ability to endure. Thus, sustainable development has been defined as one that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Conditions for Sustainable Development

For sustainable development, at least two conditions must be fulfilled:

1. Resource Exploitation Rate: The rate at which resources are consumed cannot exceed their renewal rate.
2. Waste Emission Rate: The waste emission rate must be less than the assimilative capacity of the ecosystem to which it is discharged. For example, until the Industrial Revolution, CO2 emissions from human activities were below the system's assimilative capacity, so that the concentration

Fundamentals of Rock Classification: Texture and Composition

Analyzing Rock Samples

When studying a rock sample, geologists observe several key characteristics:

• Mineral Composition: The types and amounts of minerals present.
• Color: Often indicative of mineral content.
• Texture: The look and feel of the rock's surface.

Defining Rock Grains

Most rocks are made up of particles of minerals or other rocks, which geologists call grains.

What is Rock Texture?

Rock texture is the look and feel of the rock’s surface.

Types of Rock Texture

(Note: The specific types of rock texture were not detailed in the original source material.)

The Three Major Rock Groups

Geologists classify rocks into three primary groups:

1. Igneous Rock
2. Sedimentary Rock
3. Metamorphic Rock

Igneous