Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Weather and Climate

Weather

Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place. It's characterized by its variability and is determined through direct observations. Meteorology is the science that studies weather.

Climate

Climate represents the average state of the atmosphere in a particular location. This average is determined by the typical patterns of weather that occur throughout the year. Climate exhibits more stable characteristics over time and is statistically determined by calculating average values over a period of at least thirty years to ensure reliability.

Atmospheric Pressure

Barometer: Measures the weight of air above a unit area, typically in millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa).
Isobars: Lines on weather maps connecting... Continue reading "Weather and Climate: A Comprehensive Overview" »

Water Treatment Methods

Physical Filtration

Desbastement: Pass water through filters and/or grids of different porosity to remove large particles.

Activated Carbon Filter: Pass water through activated carbon, which has small pores, to remove salts, odors, and strange tastes through electroaffinity.

Decanting/Sedimentation: Let water sit in large containers so suspended solids settle to the bottom. Collect the surface water free of solids. Sometimes used after flocculation.

Ultraviolet Radiation: Use UV light to eliminate microorganisms.

Reverse Osmosis: Subject water to high pressure to force it through membranes, removing dissolved salts.

Chemical Treatment

Coagulation-Flocculation: Add a substance to the water to chemically bind finely divided, suspended... Continue reading "Water Treatment and Air Pollution" »

The Transformation of Soil

Soil is a nonrenewable resource that is essential not only for survival but for the life of people. Major threats affecting the soil are erosion, loss of organic matter, contamination, salinization, compaction, loss of biodiversity, landslides, and inundations, which may become irreversible. The transformation of the ground, compared to other resources, has been uneven across the planet. It has become 10 times faster than in the past.

Mineral Resources as a Source of Energy

These resources, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, have a renewal time that is useless for our purposes, so reserves will eventually be depleted. Many resources have formed from the incomplete decomposition of organic matter within the earth. The... Continue reading "Soil, Energy, and Biodiversity: Resources and Conservation" »

The Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that aims to reduce emissions of six greenhouse gases that cause global warming: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and three fluorinated industrial gases: hydrofluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and perfluorocarbons. The goal was to reduce emissions by approximately 5% between 2008 and 2012, compared to 1990 emissions. For example, if the contamination of these gases in 1990 reached 100%, by the end of 2012, it should have been at least 95%. It is important to note that this does not mean that each country must reduce its emissions of gases covered by 5% or more. Instead, this is a global percentage, and each country is bound by its own Kyoto emission rates.

The instrument... Continue reading "Kyoto Protocol: Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions" »