Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Earth's Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth. It is made up of nitrogen, oxygen, and 1% argon, CO2, neon, helium, ozone, dust, and water vapor.

• Troposphere: The layer in contact with the ground, between 10 and 11 km high. It is responsible for the greenhouse effect and meteorological phenomena. The temperature decreases with height.
• Stratosphere: Extends to 45 km altitude. Its temperature increases with height. The ozone layer, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation, is located here.
• Mesosphere: Extends to approximately 80 km in height. This is where meteorites falling to Earth become incandescent and turn into shooting stars.
• Thermosphere: This layer reaches 500 km in height and contains ionized gases.
• Exosphere:

Marxism

Marxism is a philosophy with a close relationship to science. Unlike speculative philosophies following the Platonic tradition, it is politically implemented. It is also a materialist philosophy, a dialectical materialism, which conceives matter not as inert and determined by mechanical laws, but as something dynamic and evolving, with its own internal contradictions as the driving force. Founded by Karl Marx, its study concerns the historical evolution of human societies, emphasizing historical materialism, which focuses on the various modes of production societies use to create their material existence. Historical development is linked to the ideologies and policies of socialism and communism. Its influence on the Frankfurt School... Continue reading "Understanding Marxism, Nihilism, Phenomenology, and Existentialism" »

Atlantic Spain (Euro-Siberian)

Characterized by wet weather and mild temperatures, this region is home to deciduous forests. These forests feature tall trees with large leaves, requiring ample water. While there are relatively few species, hardwood forests have large populations. In mountainous areas, coniferous forests dominate. The highest points of the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian mountain range feature alpine meadows, as the altitude and snow prevent tree growth.

Mediterranean Spain

This region endures arid months. It is characterized by evergreen forests with small trees, low branches, and sparse growth. Oaks are found in more humid areas, while scrubland dominates the driest places. It's important to note that pine forests are often a... Continue reading "Vegetation Zones in Spain: Atlantic, Mediterranean, Macaronesian" »

Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Earthquakes

An earthquake is a violent trembling of the Earth's crust, lasting a short time and varying in intensity. It occurs when materials abruptly fracture within the lithosphere. The point of origin is called the hypocenter. From the hypocenter, freed energy transmits as seismic waves in all directions. The most affected surface point is the epicenter. Energy transmits in superficial seismic waves.

Volcanoes

Volcanoes expel extremely hot materials. A volcano is an opening in the Earth's crust through which melted rocky materials from inside the Earth are expelled. This material is called magma within the crust and lava once expelled.

Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

Continental Drift

Alfred Wegener proposed the... Continue reading "Earth's Dynamic Processes: Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and Plate Tectonics" »

Weather and Climate

Weather

Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place. It's characterized by its variability and is determined through direct observations. Meteorology is the science that studies weather.

Climate

Climate represents the average state of the atmosphere in a particular location. This average is determined by the typical patterns of weather that occur throughout the year. Climate exhibits more stable characteristics over time and is statistically determined by calculating average values over a period of at least thirty years to ensure reliability.

Atmospheric Pressure

Barometer: Measures the weight of air above a unit area, typically in millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa).
Isobars: Lines on weather maps connecting... Continue reading "Weather and Climate: A Comprehensive Overview" »

Water Treatment Methods

Physical Filtration

Desbastement: Pass water through filters and/or grids of different porosity to remove large particles.

Activated Carbon Filter: Pass water through activated carbon, which has small pores, to remove salts, odors, and strange tastes through electroaffinity.

Decanting/Sedimentation: Let water sit in large containers so suspended solids settle to the bottom. Collect the surface water free of solids. Sometimes used after flocculation.

Ultraviolet Radiation: Use UV light to eliminate microorganisms.

Reverse Osmosis: Subject water to high pressure to force it through membranes, removing dissolved salts.

Chemical Treatment

Coagulation-Flocculation: Add a substance to the water to chemically bind finely divided, suspended... Continue reading "Water Treatment and Air Pollution" »

The Transformation of Soil

Soil is a nonrenewable resource that is essential not only for survival but for the life of people. Major threats affecting the soil are erosion, loss of organic matter, contamination, salinization, compaction, loss of biodiversity, landslides, and inundations, which may become irreversible. The transformation of the ground, compared to other resources, has been uneven across the planet. It has become 10 times faster than in the past.

Mineral Resources as a Source of Energy

These resources, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, have a renewal time that is useless for our purposes, so reserves will eventually be depleted. Many resources have formed from the incomplete decomposition of organic matter within the earth. The... Continue reading "Soil, Energy, and Biodiversity: Resources and Conservation" »

The Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that aims to reduce emissions of six greenhouse gases that cause global warming: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and three fluorinated industrial gases: hydrofluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and perfluorocarbons. The goal was to reduce emissions by approximately 5% between 2008 and 2012, compared to 1990 emissions. For example, if the contamination of these gases in 1990 reached 100%, by the end of 2012, it should have been at least 95%. It is important to note that this does not mean that each country must reduce its emissions of gases covered by 5% or more. Instead, this is a global percentage, and each country is bound by its own Kyoto emission rates.

The instrument... Continue reading "Kyoto Protocol: Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions" »