Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Sustainable Development

According to the Brundtland report, where this term first appeared, sustainable development is "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." This requires a respectful attitude towards all people, all living beings, and all ecosystems.

This involves:

1. Consuming resources below their regeneration capacity.
2. Disposing of waste in quantities that nature can absorb.
3. Utilizing renewable energy sources.
4. Ensuring development reaches the entire population.

Sustainable development has three components: economic growth, environmental conservation, and social equity. It's important not to confuse the concepts of growth and development. Economic growth refers... Continue reading "Sustainable Development, Atmosphere, and Pollution" »

Parthenon: An Architectural Marvel

I observe the front, main elevation, facade, or side elevations of a structure. The primary material used in this construction is marble. A significant portion of the outer space is visible, along with a part of the building's interior. The structure rests upon a base (crepidoma) with steps (crepis) extending along its entire perimeter.

Structural Elements

The load-bearing elements include walls and columns. Where visible, the wall presents meticulously matched stones, indicating a regular ashlar construction. The columns do not directly rest on the stylobate. The shaft features sharp edges or ridges, separated by grooves. The capital comprises an abacus, echinus, and collarino.

Supporting elements include the... Continue reading "Parthenon & Maison Carrée: Ancient Greek Temples" »

Materials in a Building

Structure

The strong skeleton of the building, consisting of:

• Cimientos (Foundations)
• Pillars
• Vigas (Beams)
• Forjado (Slab/Flooring)

They can be made of concrete, reinforced concrete, or steel.

Siding

Serves as external protection against atmospheric agents. Consists of: facade walls and the roof structure (steel support on which the roof is constituted).

Partitions

Internal walls or divisions that sort and distribute the interior space. Typically made of bricks and plaster.

Coatings

Applied to floors, walls, and ceilings to provide a finished surface. Consist of materials such as paint or fabrics.

Types of Rocks

Magmatic or Igneous Rocks

Formed by the solidification of molten material from inside the Earth, e.g., Granite.

Sedimentary

... Continue reading "Building Materials and Their Properties" »

The El Niño and La Niña Phenomena

The normal situation along Peru's coast involves trade winds pushing surface water westward across the Pacific, leading to the upwelling of nutrient-rich water and fertilization of the area. These winds originate from an anticyclone located over Easter Island and dissipate near the Asian continent.

Understanding El Niño

The El Niño phenomenon is characterized by the excessive heating of the surface waters in the eastern Pacific. It typically occurs every 3-5 years and lasts approximately 18 months. This event happens when trade winds subside, allowing the surface water to heat up and form a storm system.

Understanding La Niña

La Niña is considered an exaggeration of the normal situation, occurring when trade... Continue reading "Understanding El Niño, La Niña, and Frontal Precipitation" »

1 .- Visión binocular 2 .- Color Perception 3 .- Trunk erect climbing, walking or sitting. 4 .- orbits surrounded by bone 5 .- Thumbs opposed to other fingers. 6 .- Presence of flat nails rather than claws, hands and feet. 7 .- Shoulder joint well developed 8 .- The elbow joint allows rotation of the forearm. The forearm rotation movements are known as pronation and supination.
Monkeys: Cercopitecoideos: Macaques, baboons, Chucks
Hominoids: chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas, gibbons, Male hominoids - Hylobatidae (Gibbons) - Hominidae (orangutans (ponginos) Gorilla (gorilla), chimpanzees (Pan), Man (homo))
Foramen magnum in the center of the skull, thus allowing a march erguida.-Increased skull size and more rounded. - Absence of supraorbital... Continue reading "Primate Evolution and Human Ancestry: Key Adaptations and Milestones" »

Earth's Climates, Landforms, and Oceans

Warm Climates

Warm climates are found in intertropical areas, between the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn:

Equatorial Climate

Warm temperatures and abundant rainfall throughout the year, exceeding 2,000 mm annually. The vegetation is characterized by abundant forests.

Tropical Climate

Very warm temperatures with rainfall concentrated in specific months. The savanna is a typical landscape feature.

Desert Climate

Very hot and with very little rainfall, less than 250mm annually. The vegetation is sparse and adapted to drought, such as cacti or esparto grass.

Temperate Climates

Located between the tropics and polar circles. These climates experience four distinct seasons with notable differences in temperatures and... Continue reading "Understanding Earth's Climates, Landforms, and Oceans" »

The Rock Cycle

The Rock Cycle: Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and crystallization of magma. When exposed to weathering agents on the Earth's surface, they decompose. Weathering products are transported and deposited as sediment. During and after deposition, the lithification process occurs, in which sediments become sedimentary rocks. When buried deep underground, under high temperatures and penetrated by chemically active gases and solutions, these rocks are transformed into metamorphic rocks. Metamorphism does not melt the rock, but the minerals change shape and often in nature. If the rock melts, it creates magma. This magma, upon cooling, produces igneous rocks, and a new cycle begins. The cycle can be interrupted and follow paths... Continue reading "Rock Cycle, Minerals, Monsoons, Air Fronts, and Metamorphism" »

Understanding Environmental Impact

Appeal refers to anything that humanity uses to meet their basic needs and desires. These resources can be categorized based on their origin:

• Natural resources: such as water and air.
• Human resources: resulting from our activities.

Based on availability, resources can be:

• Renewable: capable of regeneration (e.g., solar, wind).
• Non-renewable: finite and not easily replenished (e.g., oil, minerals).

Several factors impact resource availability and environmental health:

• Demographic explosion: High population growth leads to increased demand and utilization of resources, resulting in overfishing and ecosystem changes.
• Uncontrolled development: Prioritizes the production of goods without considering environmental degradation.

... Continue reading "Understanding Environmental Impact: Resources, Pollution, and Climate Change" »

Understanding Water: Properties and Types

Water's States and Transformations

Water is a unique substance, commonly found in its liquid state, but it can also exist as a gas (water vapor) or a solid (snow, ice, hail). Its ability to change states with ease is fundamental to many natural processes.

• Liquid: Rain, seas, rivers
• Solid: Snow, ice, hail
• Gas: Water vapor

To transform liquid water into steam, you simply need to heat it. Conversely, to turn it into ice, you must cool it. A remarkable characteristic of water is that it expands when it freezes, which is crucial for aquatic life.

The Essential Water Cycle

In nature, the total amount of water remains almost constant because it follows a continuous circular path known as the Water Cycle. This cycle... Continue reading "Water Properties and Types: A Comprehensive Resource" »

Meteorological Phenomena

Cyclones

Cyclones are winds that rotate around a low-pressure center and converge toward the center. In the Northern Hemisphere, they rotate counter-clockwise, and in the Southern Hemisphere, they rotate clockwise. Cyclones are typically associated with low-pressure systems on weather maps and often bring unsettled weather.

Anticyclones

Anticyclones rotate in opposite directions around a high-pressure center and project outward from the center. Anticyclones are associated with high-pressure systems on weather maps and usually lead to good weather. Together, these pressure systems determine the weather patterns of the temperate zone.

Air Mass Types

Continental Polar Air Mass

This air mass is cold and dry.

Maritime Polar Air

... Continue reading "Fundamental Earth Science Concepts: Weather & Geology" »