Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

External geological agents: External agents, which "destroy" the relief by wearing down the mountains and filling the lower parts of the terrestrial surface. They include: the atmosphere, wind, living organisms, and water (in all its forms: rivers, streams, rain, glaciers, oceans, etc.). External geological processes are: erosion, transportation, and sedimentation.

Physical and Chemical Processes: Changes in temperature, frost, the action of plant roots, wind, and water movements.

Sediments: These are the eroded materials that are deposited when there is no further transport occurring.

Internal Geological Processes: Earthquakes and volcanoes.

External Geological Processes: Wind, ocean tides, rivers, ice, temperature changes, atmospheric components,... Continue reading "Understanding External and Internal Geological Processes" »

Equatorial Climate

Location

• Amazon Basin
• Congo Basin
• Indonesia

Temperature

High temperatures, around 25°C year-round. Hot weather.

Temperature Range

Low thermal amplitude, less than 3°C difference.

Rainfall

High and regular precipitation, more than 2000 mm per year.

Vegetation

Rainforest.

Dry Tropical / Monsoon Climate

Location

• Central Africa
• India
• Central America
• Areas surrounding the Equatorial climate zone

Temperature

High temperatures, greater than 20°C year-round. Hot weather.

Temperature Range

Small thermal amplitude, between 3°C and 10°C.

Rainfall

Irregular precipitation with two distinct seasons: a wet summer and a dry winter. High annual rainfall, typically 1000 mm to over 2000 mm.

Vegetation

Tropical Gallery Forest, Savanna.

Warm Desert Climate

Location

• Sahara

Prevention

Acting on the Source

• Appropriate facility design
• Siding with cabins or curtains
• Partial machine isolation
• Screens and faders
• Regular monitoring of transmission area and radiation intensity

Action on the Environment

• Anti-reflective wall coatings
• Control of temperature, humidity, and ventilation
• Avoid concentrating multiple sources in one environment
• Delineation and marking of danger areas

Acting on Work Organization

• Reduce exposure time based on danger level
• Authorize access only to permitted personnel

Acting on People

• Inform and educate workers
• Use appropriate safeguards (e.g., goggles, absorbent clothing)
• Risk-based health screenings

Workplace Radon, Thoron, and Radiation Exposure

• Underground mines and tourist caves
• Spas and indoor pools
• Tunnels and

Vital Functions of Living Beings

Nutrition

The function by which living beings utilize food substances to produce energy.

Relation

The function by which all living beings relate to the environment and respond to stimuli.

Reproduction

The function by which every living being is capable of producing similar beings.

Chemical Composition of Living Beings

Bioelements

These are the chemical elements that form part of living beings.

Classification by Abundance

They are preferentially classified as:

• Fundamental Bioelements
• Secondary Bioelements
• Trace Elements (Oligoelements)

Biomolecules

These are the molecules that form part of living beings. They can be:

• Organic: Large molecules characterized by long chains of carbon atoms.
• Inorganic: Small molecules that do not contain

Earth's Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth. It is made up of nitrogen, oxygen, and 1% argon, CO2, neon, helium, ozone, dust, and water vapor.

• Troposphere: The layer in contact with the ground, between 10 and 11 km high. It is responsible for the greenhouse effect and meteorological phenomena. The temperature decreases with height.
• Stratosphere: Extends to 45 km altitude. Its temperature increases with height. The ozone layer, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation, is located here.
• Mesosphere: Extends to approximately 80 km in height. This is where meteorites falling to Earth become incandescent and turn into shooting stars.
• Thermosphere: This layer reaches 500 km in height and contains ionized gases.
• Exosphere:

Marxism

Marxism is a philosophy with a close relationship to science. Unlike speculative philosophies following the Platonic tradition, it is politically implemented. It is also a materialist philosophy, a dialectical materialism, which conceives matter not as inert and determined by mechanical laws, but as something dynamic and evolving, with its own internal contradictions as the driving force. Founded by Karl Marx, its study concerns the historical evolution of human societies, emphasizing historical materialism, which focuses on the various modes of production societies use to create their material existence. Historical development is linked to the ideologies and policies of socialism and communism. Its influence on the Frankfurt School... Continue reading "Understanding Marxism, Nihilism, Phenomenology, and Existentialism" »

Atlantic Spain (Euro-Siberian)

Characterized by wet weather and mild temperatures, this region is home to deciduous forests. These forests feature tall trees with large leaves, requiring ample water. While there are relatively few species, hardwood forests have large populations. In mountainous areas, coniferous forests dominate. The highest points of the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian mountain range feature alpine meadows, as the altitude and snow prevent tree growth.

Mediterranean Spain

This region endures arid months. It is characterized by evergreen forests with small trees, low branches, and sparse growth. Oaks are found in more humid areas, while scrubland dominates the driest places. It's important to note that pine forests are often a... Continue reading "Vegetation Zones in Spain: Atlantic, Mediterranean, Macaronesian" »

Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Earthquakes

An earthquake is a violent trembling of the Earth's crust, lasting a short time and varying in intensity. It occurs when materials abruptly fracture within the lithosphere. The point of origin is called the hypocenter. From the hypocenter, freed energy transmits as seismic waves in all directions. The most affected surface point is the epicenter. Energy transmits in superficial seismic waves.

Volcanoes

Volcanoes expel extremely hot materials. A volcano is an opening in the Earth's crust through which melted rocky materials from inside the Earth are expelled. This material is called magma within the crust and lava once expelled.

Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

Continental Drift

Alfred Wegener proposed the... Continue reading "Earth's Dynamic Processes: Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and Plate Tectonics" »

Weather and Climate

Weather

Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place. It's characterized by its variability and is determined through direct observations. Meteorology is the science that studies weather.

Climate

Climate represents the average state of the atmosphere in a particular location. This average is determined by the typical patterns of weather that occur throughout the year. Climate exhibits more stable characteristics over time and is statistically determined by calculating average values over a period of at least thirty years to ensure reliability.

Atmospheric Pressure

Barometer: Measures the weight of air above a unit area, typically in millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa).
Isobars: Lines on weather maps connecting... Continue reading "Weather and Climate: A Comprehensive Overview" »

Water Treatment Methods

Physical Filtration

Desbastement: Pass water through filters and/or grids of different porosity to remove large particles.

Activated Carbon Filter: Pass water through activated carbon, which has small pores, to remove salts, odors, and strange tastes through electroaffinity.

Decanting/Sedimentation: Let water sit in large containers so suspended solids settle to the bottom. Collect the surface water free of solids. Sometimes used after flocculation.

Ultraviolet Radiation: Use UV light to eliminate microorganisms.

Reverse Osmosis: Subject water to high pressure to force it through membranes, removing dissolved salts.

Chemical Treatment

Coagulation-Flocculation: Add a substance to the water to chemically bind finely divided, suspended... Continue reading "Water Treatment and Air Pollution" »