Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Mesozoic Era (250-65 Ma)

No geological evolution. Towards the end of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, all continents of the Earth united to form Pangea. The distribution of land and sea undergoes major changes during this era, during which continents separate.

Life in the Mesozoic

In the Mesozoic, a major diversification of marine fauna, especially molluscs and echinoderms, occurred due to the fracturing of Pangea. Reptiles experienced significant diversification, colonizing air, aquatic, and terrestrial environments (dinosaurs).

Types of Dinosaurs:

• Teropods: Carnivorous with short front legs equipped with strong claws and enormous teeth.
• Sauropods: Large quadrupedal herbivores with very long necks and tails, and columnar legs.
• Ornithopods: Bipedal herbivores.

THE WATER OR RIVERS:

The route of the rivers is determined by the relief. The characteristic differentiated sides are the Atlantic side and Mediterranean.

Atlantic:

Here are the longest rivers. This vertiente pertenece the longest river and the mighty of the region Guadalquivur along with its main tributary, the Genil basin is regulated by Gualdalkibir numbers embalses. Other rivers of the red side are the Guadalete, Odiel, and Barbate.

Mediterranean:

Is composed of rivers that pour their waters into the Mediterranean Sea. These rivers are born on the mountain rivers Penibética neighborhoods so they are small and short with irregular flow. Some of these rivers remain dry most of the year. Among Andalusian Mediterranean rivers can stand the walking... Continue reading "Geography and Climate of Andalusia: Rivers, Climate Variations, and Environmental Issues" »

Ancient Theaters, Amphitheaters, and Circuses

Participate in this topic by adding -nt- (1a and 2a) or -ent- (3a and 4a). Laudo to Laudants-NTIS, NTIS-time 2 timens, Capio-3 capients capientis, audio 4-audients audientis. // participant Amans, NTIS puerum-lover Pueri lovers, Puelles amantibus; etc. ...// cancertat may be involved or absolute (in ablative). // Translation (was, were, they came ... they saw ... what is ....)// Decumanus (EO) Cards (NS) //

The Greek Theatre was divided into three distinct sections:

• The stands where spectators were sitting.
• The orchestra, a circular space where the chorus sang and danced.
• The stage, a platform for actors and a building that served as a backdrop, storage, and dressing rooms (scaena).

The Romans followed... Continue reading "Ancient Theaters, Amphitheaters, and Circuses: A Comparative Study" »

The First Nuclei of Resistance

United Astur-Leones

In 718, Don Pelayo was elected king. In 722, the victory of Covadonga was achieved.

United Pamplona

Around the 9th century, Sancho I strengthened the new kingdom, extending it southward. His dynasty established the County of Aragon in 970.

County of Aragon

In the central Pyrenees, the counties of Aragon, Ribagorza, and Sobrarbe were formed. From 970, it was linked to Pamplona.

Catalan Counties

Located in the eastern Pyrenees, these counties were related to the Carolingian monarchy in the 8th and 9th centuries.

Main Stages of the Reconquest

8th-10th Centuries

Christian advances were limited to occupying nearly empty territories, such as the Duero basin and the northern Ebro.

11th and First Half of the 12th

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface. Here's a breakdown:

1. Solar radiation received: 100%.
2. 30% is reflected by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface.
3. 19% is absorbed by clouds and other atmospheric components.
4. 51% is absorbed by the land surface, which then heats up.
5. The heated surface emits infrared radiation.
6. Some of this infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases and re-emitted back to the surface.
7. The remaining infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere and dissipates into outer space.

Reconstructing Past Climates

Ice core records help reconstruct past climates:

1. Air bubbles trapped in ice: Ice accumulated in layers, particularly in Antarctica, contains small air bubbles. These bubbles reveal the

Understanding the Biosphere

The set of all living beings that inhabit the Earth is known as the biosphere. Currently, there are approximately 2 million species. An ecosystem is defined as all living beings that inhabit a specific place, where relationships are established between them and the physical environment they live in, along with the site characteristics and relationships between the environment and organisms.

Types of Ecosystems

There are several types of ecosystems:

• Aquatic Ecosystems: Rivers, ponds
• Terrestrial Ecosystems: Deserts, forests

The Ecosphere

The ecosphere is the set of all the ecosystems of our planet. The biosphere is the living part of the food ecosystem, where living beings perform vital functions. All living things need energy,... Continue reading "Understanding the Biosphere and Ecosystems on Earth" »

Freshwater: Rivers and Lakes

Physical Elements of the River Regime

1. Climate

The greatest precipitation occurs in the North, i.e., the oceanic climate of Spain. This results in the largest relative flow and the greater regularity of the rivers located in humid Spain, which occupies only 20% of the mainland.

2. Relief

Relief influences the size of the watersheds. In mountainous areas, watersheds are small and compartmentalized. Consequently, rivers in mountainous areas have little absolute flow. The relief influences the erosive capacity of rivers, which is related to the slope. It also influences decisions on whether or not to build hydraulic structures.

3. Ground

If the bedrock is waterproof (granite, clay, shale), much of the precipitation joins... Continue reading "Freshwater Ecosystems: Rivers and Lakes in Spain" »

Fe-C Alloys: Alloy Elements

• Mn <1.6%: Descaling and desulfurization. Increases tensile strength (Re), ultimate tensile strength (Rm), fatigue resistance, and wear resistance. Decreases machinability.
• P <0.04%: Increases Re, Rm, wear resistance, and machinability. Decreases resilience.
• S <0.04%: Harmful in steels. Increases machinability and hardness, decreases elongation, resilience, and Re.
• Si <0.50%: Deoxidation, increasing Re, Rm, hardness, and wear resistance. Decreases machinability, resilience, and forgeability.

Influence of Alloy Elements

1. Mechanical Properties: Strengthening through training sequence and carbide precipitation.
2. Hardenability improvement.
3. Eutectoid temperature shifted downward, and less with higher %C alloy.
4. Grain Size:

Climate Change Impact in Asturias

A long-term global reduction in CO2 emissions by at least 50% in 2050 compared to 1990 is crucial.

Main Problems

Addressing the following challenges is essential:

• Reducing carbon emissions from developed countries.
• Promoting economic growth without harming the environment.
• Fostering cooperation to help developing countries.

Climate Change in Asturias: An Introduction

The Earth is interconnected, and changes in one area affect the whole. Climate change is worsening globally and is increasingly evident in Asturias. Adapting to these changes will require modifications to public works on the coast to address marine phenomena that exceed current artificial barriers, especially in eastern Asturias.

Effects of Climate Change

Warmer

**Chlorophyll Function**

Chlorophyll function: The process by which plants absorb CO2 for subsequent decomposition; oxygen is released by this means.

**Starch**

Starch: A polysaccharide like starch that is in seeds, tubers, and roots used by plants. It is used primarily in the food industry in the elaboration of flour.

**Taro**

Taro: A tropical plant used as a vegetable for its corm. It is also edible as a vegetable, but it is indigestible when raw due to substances in the ergastic cells of the plant. It grows where there is a lot of water.

**Corm**

Corm: A thickened underground stem with a swollen base and vertical growth. It contains nodes and bulges where the buds come out, and it is covered by layers of leaves.

**Cassava**

A perennial shrub, Cassava,... Continue reading "Understanding Essential Plant Processes and Food Crops" »