Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Properties of Minerals

Physical Properties

Exfoliation: The property of minerals to split along a preferred direction. These minerals have a weaker union between each crystalline unit. It depends on the internal structure of the crystal and is constant for each mineral. The following grades are usually distinguished: excellent, perfect, good, very flawed, and imperfect.

Fracture: When a mineral fractures, the chemical bonds are broken irregularly, unrelated to the symmetry of the structure.

Toughness: The resistance of a mineral to being scratched. It depends on the chemical bonds. Its value is calculated by comparing it with other minerals of known hardness (Mohs scale).

Specific Gravity: A number that expresses the relationship between the mineral'... Continue reading "Mineral Properties: Physical, Optical, and Chemical Characteristics" »

Geological Origin: Plate Movement

The relief units in the Iberian Peninsula are composed of layers of rock that have been folded or fractured. All these changes are caused by plate tectonics. The geological history of Spain is conditioned by the interaction of two plates: the Eurasian and African plates.

• Precambrian or Archaic Era

  (Started ~4 billion years ago) A set of lands emerged from the sea, with outcrops consisting of gneiss and slates in what are now the Central System and the Montes de Toledo. These were later eroded and covered by the sea. The Iberian Peninsula formed a vast geosyncline where materials were deposited.

• Primary or Paleozoic Era

  (Started ~600 million years ago) The first major orogeny occurred: the Hercynian orogeny. After

Tassel House

Victor Horta, Brussels, 1892-1893

Key Features:

• Location: Brussels
• Architect: Victor Horta
• Style: Modernism (Art Nouveau)
• Period: 1892-1893
• Construction System: Industrial Materials

Historical Context

The 19th century was a time of profound political, economic, and cultural change. The Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution were particularly influential. Napoleon extended French influence throughout Europe. Following his defeat, the victorious European monarchies sought to restore the old order, a period known as the Restoration.

Cultural Movements

Three major artistic movements dominated this era: Neoclassicism, Realism, and Romanticism.

Modernism (Art Nouveau)

a) Emergence: Modernism, also known as Art Nouveau, emerged as a response... Continue reading "Victor Horta's Tassel House: A Modernist Masterpiece in Brussels" »

Stratigraphic Methods

Stratigraphic Discontinuities

Breaks in sedimentation are called diastems. A time lapse without sedimentation is called a hiatus. If erosion occurs during this time, it results in a stratigraphic unconformity. Types of unconformities include disconformity, angular unconformity, and nonconformity.

Principle of Superposition of Strata

This principle states that in an undisturbed sequence of strata (layers), the order from oldest to most recent ranges from bottom to top. Related principles include the Principle of Original Horizontality and the Principle of Lateral Continuity of strata.

Exceptions:

• The Principle of Original Horizontality may not be valid at the edges of sedimentary basins.
• The Principle of Lateral Continuity does

Understanding Masonry Construction Techniques

Dry Stone Masonry

This type of masonry involves stacking rubble stones without using any mortar, or at most, using mud/clay. The stones are worked and carefully placed to fit closely together, ensuring that joints and gaps are minimal. These walls can be built with a slight incline or batter, typically between 1/7 and 1/5 of their height, for stability.

Mortared Masonry Walls

These walls are constructed using manufactured or natural stones laid without specific shaping, but employing mortar for bedding the stones and filling the joints. Key considerations include:

• Ensuring each rubble stone rests stably on the one below it.
• Trimming stones as needed to achieve a good fit.
• Using smaller stones, known as

Earth's Mantle: Structure and Composition

The middle layer is currently not able to be pierced. The survey in the Kola peninsula reaches 13 km deep. The Bavaria project in another poll is 14 km, where the inconvenience can be saved because the temperature does not exceed 300ºC, otherwise, the drill bit would melt. Mantle rocks were put on the surface through favorable tectonic structures. In the mantle, we must distinguish two layers:

• The upper mantle from 30 to 670 km of depth.
• The lower mantle from 670 to 2,900 km.

The Repetti discontinuity separates them. The predominant rocks are peridotites, which have the same density in the upper mantle. They outcrop in the mountain ranges in the form of ophiolite complexes. Their typical minerals are olivine,

Landscape Patterns

Elements of the Earth's surface, including biotic and anthropic.

Relief

The aspect of the land area outside of biotic elements.

Oceanic Crust

Basalt, covered with water almost in its entirety.

Continental Crust

Granite, thicker, less dense, mostly out on the oceans, and continents form.

Oceanic Ridges

(Points creating crust) Alignments of volcanoes with intense volcanic activity. Fissures emit lava through cracks.

Oceanic Trenches

Areas of intense seismic activity, as this point in the oceanic crust sinks into the mantle (point of destruction of crust).

Continental Crust: Mountain Ranges

Alignments of mountains formed by folding the material or volcanic activity.

Continental Shelves

Part of the continental crust covered by the sea.

Continental

Reliefs of Argentina

To the west, the mountain area presents new and older structures in central and eastern Argentina. Youthful structures in some high altitude regions have development exceeding 6000 meters. This structure forms the Cordillera de los Andes, and its ridges and mountains are oriented in a north-south direction. To the east, the height of these elevations is decreasing. To the south of Argentina, in the Patagonian forest ecoregion, the Andes begin to lose altitude and dive under the sea east of Tierra del Fuego. Toward the center and east of the country are older masifs or plateaus that reach 2500 meters in height. These structures are much older than the Cordillera of the Andes, so their slopes are less steep. Many of these... Continue reading "Argentina's Diverse Landscapes: Reliefs, Resources, and Ecoregions" »

Wastewater Sludge Treatment: Chemical Processes

Types of Sludge in a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP)

• Primary (Decanting)
• Secondary
• Mixed

Other Sludge in a WWTP

• Fats and Oils
• Separator-Flotation
• Precipitation
• Trickling Filters

Sludge Treatment Goals

• Decrease water content
• Removal of organic matter to the solid phase for easy evacuation from the WWTP

Treatments Used

• Thickening

  • Gravity
  • Flotation

• Stabilization

  • Biological
  • Chemical

• Dehydration

  • Centrifugation
  • Filtration

Thickening Objectives

Reducing the volume of water to be treated in subsequent treatments.

Stabilization Objectives

Elimination of biodegradable organic matter present in the sludge, so that no subsequent decompositions generate odors at the final destination.

Dehydration Objectives

Achieving a suitable dryness... Continue reading "Wastewater Sludge & Biological Waste Treatment Methods" »

Demographic Concepts

Census

An official statistical document that sets the population count, collecting demographic and socioeconomic data of the residents. For example, it is realized every 5 years and finished in 6.

Concentrated Population

A population that is primarily gathered around a town and not scattered in the field. It explains how the population is divided in the territory. For example, in Mallorca, the population is concentrated.

Disseminated Population

A population where homes are primarily scattered in the field and not in urban groups. It explains how the population is divided in the territory. For example, in Ibiza, the population is disseminated.

Fertility Rate

The relationship between the number of babies born alive in a year x 1000,... Continue reading "Demographic Concepts: Population, Fertility, and Migration" »