Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Fundamental Weather and Climate Definitions

Insolation

Insolation is the amount of solar radiation a surface receives. It varies with season and latitude, influencing the angle at which sunlight arrives. In the northern Iberian Peninsula, sunshine is limited, increasing significantly towards the south.

Thermal Amplitude / Thermal Oscillation

Thermal amplitude, also known as thermal oscillation, is the difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures recorded in an area. This can refer to either the annual or daily temperature range. Both tend to increase inland due to the reduced mitigating effect of the sea on temperatures. In Spain, the temperature range is notably high across the two sub-plateaus and reduced along the coasts.

Anticyclone

An... Continue reading "Key Meteorological and Climatic Concepts" »

Drogas: Tolerancia, Dependencia y Abstinencia

Es fundamental comprender los conceptos clave relacionados con el consumo de sustancias:

• Tolerancia: Es la capacidad que desarrolla el cuerpo para resistir los efectos de una sustancia tóxica y adaptarse tras su consumo prolongado.
• Dependencia: Es la necesidad de consumir la droga para que el cuerpo funcione adecuadamente.
• Síndrome de abstinencia: Es el conjunto de reacciones físicas o corporales que ocurren cuando una persona con adicción a una sustancia deja de consumirla.

Tipos de Drogas

Las drogas se pueden clasificar según sus efectos en el sistema nervioso central:

• Depresoras: Opio, heroína, morfina, sedantes, tranquilizantes, somníferos y alcohol.
• Estimulantes: Cocaína, anfetaminas, drogas

Solid Waste: A Growing Global Problem

Solid waste poses a significant challenge for societies worldwide, particularly in densely populated urban areas. Overpopulation, increased human activity, and modern consumerism have dramatically increased the amount of waste we generate. Inefficient waste management practices, such as open burning and inadequate landfilling, lead to serious health problems and environmental damage. These include:

• Unpleasant odors from decomposing organic matter.
• Health risks due to uncontrolled accumulation, attracting disease-carrying rodents and insects.
• Soil, surface water, and groundwater contamination from leachate.
• Air pollution from controlled and uncontrolled combustion.
• Degradation of the landscape.

Many waste materials... Continue reading "Effective Solid Waste Management: Solutions and Strategies" »

Fog: A Cloud Phenomenon

Fog is a cloud formed by the condensation of water vapor, with its base in contact with the ground. Fogs are classified by their formation mechanism:

Fogs Resulting from Evaporation

• Smoke Fog

  Forms when cold air with low water vapor pressure passes over a warm surface. This type of fog is low-lying and common over oceans and lakes in mid to high latitudes.

• Frontal Fog

  Forms along a front where two air masses of different temperatures meet. Rain, warmer than the air it falls through, evaporates, causing the air to become supersaturated.

Fogs Resulting from Cooling

• Radiation Fog

  Forms when moist air near the ground surface cools by radiation on clear, still nights.

• Advection Fog

  Forms when moist air passes over a cold surface.

• Orographic

Absolute flow: Quantity or volume of a liquid flowing through a particular section in a given time. River regime: Flow behavior of water in a river, leading to an average in each month throughout the year. Hydrographic basin: Drainage area by a single natural drainage system, i.e., its waters draining into the sea through a single river, or that pours its waters into a single endorheic lake. Hydrographic slope: Whole river and its tributaries that flow into the same sea.

Lake: A body of fresh or salt water, more or less extensive, which is separated from the sea. Macchia: A major Mediterranean ecosystem, a plant formation consisting mainly of perennial shrubs and thermophilic trees, of average height between 50 cm to 4 m. Soil: Structured system,... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Physical Geography and Meteorology" »

Atmospheric Phenomena and Cloud Formation

Orographic Clouds: Formation and Rain Shadow

Orographic clouds arise from the shock produced by a moist air mass against a mountain, causing it to climb until it reaches its condensation level. Typically, development is horizontal (strata) and causes precipitation of the cloud in contact with the slope (horizontal precipitation).

Once the air mass is over the top of the mountain, the cloud has lost most of its water. The remainder converts into vapor as it warms while descending the side it was promoted on. As a result, this mountainside is known as a dry or rain shadow.

Convective Clouds Originating on a Front

Convective clouds on a front are those originating from a front—a contact zone between two air... Continue reading "Cloud Formation Mechanisms: Orographic Lift and Frontal Systems" »

Types of Welding and Soldering

Homogeneous Welding

In homogeneous welding, the metals being joined are of the same nature as the filler material.

Heterogeneous Welding

In heterogeneous welding, the materials involved are of different natures.

Soldering

Soldering is a heterogeneous weld between two metals, potentially using a filler metal ('contribution') of a different kind. It typically involves fusion materials below 450°C. Common applications include welding cables, panels, and low-resistance joints in bodywork (carrocería). The process relies on a filler metal that melts and spreads across the surface of the base metals.

Tin-Lead Solder

The melting temperature for tin-lead solder is approximately 230°C. The process involves:

1. Cleaning the surfaces
2. Scraping
3. Applying

Geomorphology

The science that studies and describes land relief and the geological forces that have influenced its formation.

Orogeny

The process of mountain and ridge formation resulting from the effects of tectonic plate movements.

Erosion

Modification of relief produced by wear from atmospheric and biological agents.

Sedimentation

The deposition of material resulting from the disintegration of rocks.

Hesperian Massif

A primary massif located in the central Iberian plateau, which was initially inclined toward the Mediterranean Sea.

Glaciation

During the Quaternary Era, glaciation affected the highest peaks of the peninsula, creating features like U-shaped valleys and glacial cirques.

River Terraces

Formed during the Quaternary period, these terraced... Continue reading "Essential Geomorphology Terms and Landform Definitions" »

Key Chemical Equations

N₂ + 3 O₂ → 2 N₂O₃

Cu + 2 HCl → CuCl₂ + H₂

2 C₄H₁₀ + 13 O₂ → 8 CO₂ + 10 H₂O

2 Al + 6 H₂O → 2 Al(OH)₃ + 3 H₂

Understanding Environmental Impact

Environmental impact is the set of negative effects on the environment resulting in a modification of the natural surroundings. Depending on the medium it affects, impacts are classified as:

• Impacts on the atmosphere: Produced by solid-phase particles and emissions into the atmosphere.
• Impacts on the hydrosphere: Produced by the introduction of all sorts of substances into the hydrosphere.
• Impacts on the soil: Caused by erosion or the discharge of different substances onto the ground.
• Impacts on the biosphere: Caused by the degradation of ecosystems.