Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Universe Composition

The universe is immense and comprises millions of bodies. Not everything in the universe can be observed, so the universe currently consists of an observable part. We know that there are billions of galaxies. Each galaxy contains thousands of stars, nebulae, and planets.

From a chemical point of view, the observable universe is described as being made up of: 75% hydrogen, 20% helium, and 5% other elements. Isaac Newton discovered that when sunlight passes through a prism, it separates into bands of colors (the light spectrum). We observe some black lines within this spectrum. In the laboratory, if we pass white light through containers with hydrogen and helium gas, these elements absorb specific colors of light, resulting... Continue reading "Universe Composition, Dark Matter, and Cosmic Structures" »

Defining Environmental Impact and Hazard

Environmental Impact: Alterations or modifications of some magnitude that provoke a change in the environment or some of its components, produced directly or indirectly by living beings. The main originator of environmental impact is human activity.

Environmental Hazard: The possibility of producing damage of an irreparable nature.

Types of Environmental Hazards

Environmental hazards can be categorized as follows:

• Natural Hazards: Characterized by geological events (e.g., earthquakes and volcanoes) and weather events (e.g., storms and droughts).
• Anthropogenic Hazards: Induced by human action, including contamination and forest fires.

Global Climate Change and the Greenhouse Effect

Climate Change is the alteration... Continue reading "Global Environmental Challenges: Climate Change, Pollution, and Ozone Depletion" »

Catastrophes that originate from natural phenomena are called natural disasters, distinguishing them from technological disasters caused by human activities or failures.

Understanding Risk

Risk is determined by several factors:

• Hazard: The threat level or magnitude of a potentially catastrophic event and its frequency.
• Exposure: The volume of population and property that may be affected.
• Vulnerability: The susceptibility of a community to be damaged.

(Danger does not equal risk). Risk = Hazard x Exposure x Vulnerability

Prediction and Prevention

• Prediction: Based on statistical data that indicates whether a particular phenomenon frequently occurs in a zone.
• Prevention: Proposes the adoption of necessary measures for an event to have minimal effects

Pressure (p) is the ratio of force (F) to the area (S) over which it is applied: P = F / S.

Hydrostatics and Fluid Density

Hydrostatics is a branch of physics that studies fluids at rest. The density (d) of a fluid is its mass per unit volume. The relationship between mass and volume is used to calculate density.

Hydrostatic Equilibrium and Pressure

Hydrostatic equilibrium refers to the pressure within a fluid generated by its weight. The pressure (p) at a point within a fluid is determined by the fluid's density (d), the acceleration due to gravity (g), and the depth (h) of the point: p = dgh. Pressure applied at any point in a fluid is transmitted equally to all points within the fluid.

Surface Tension

Surface tension relates to the strength of... Continue reading "Understanding Pressure, Density, and Buoyancy in Fluids" »

Coltan: Conflict Mineral Impacts and Global Exploitation

Social Consequences of Coltan Mining

The pursuit of coltan allows for the gain of control and access to cheap labor. Children are frequently used for extraction and often die due to exposure to radioactivity, poisoning, and landslides. Workers suffer from severe health issues, including diseases such as cholera, due to contaminated water and unsanitary conditions.

Key social issues include:

• Widespread child exploitation, significantly increasing child mortality rates.
• Increased marginalization and poverty.
• Rising rates of prostitution and AIDS.

Economic Exploitation and Pricing

Developed countries take advantage of the situation in poor countries because coltan extraction is highly profitable.... Continue reading "Coltan Mining Crisis and Traditional Glass Production Methods" »

Central Thermal Operation

Central carbon fuel is stored as the mine reaches and moves up the hopper, where a mill grinds it down to dust. This dust is mixed with preheated air and enters the boiler. If the fuel is stored in tanks, it is heated before driving to the boiler. If the power station uses gas, it passes from storage tanks to the boiler, pre-heated.

In the boiler, burning the fuel produces heat energy, which is converted to steam. Water circulates through tubes surrounding the furnace walls. The steam reaches the turbines. The shift of the turbine blades is transmitted to the generator rotor, producing electrical energy. As tension rises, transformers step up the voltage, and the energy is then transported to consumption points via high-... Continue reading "Thermal Power Generation and Renewable Energy Conversion" »

Alternative Energy Sources

Wind Energy

Wind energy utilizes turbines for electricity production. Wind-powered pumps (aeropumps) can also be used to pump soil or groundwater. Despite 62.6% environmental availability, there are few wind farms. Wind energy is very economical, though it has a landscape impact.

Solar Energy

The utilization of solar energy depends on radiation intensity, daily and yearly cycles, and weather conditions.

Solar Thermal Energy

The goal of solar thermal energy is capturing the sun's energy for heat. This requires installations such as solar collectors.

• Passive systems: Do not require external energy input (e.g., greenhouses).
• Active systems: Require external power input.

Solar collectors are the basic devices of all thermal systems,... Continue reading "Sustainable Energy Solutions: Types and Benefits" »

Harnessing Solar Power: Technologies and Benefits

A solar thermal power plant functions by utilizing solar energy from the sun to produce electricity. Solar thermal power plants use the sun's energy directly and therefore must be located in regions that receive high solar radiation, such as Mediterranean Europe, Africa, and Central America. To collect solar power, solar energy is transmitted to a fluid (e.g., oil) as heat. This heated fluid, through a circuit, transports heat to a boiler where water is heated. The water, due to the absorbed heat, transforms into steam and powers a turbine-alternator group to generate electricity.

Solar thermal power plants are thus power plants that use a renewable and free energy source.

Advantages of Solar Thermal

Climatic Diversity and Influencing Factors

The diversity of climate is determined by several factors:

• Latitude: Determines the existence of seasons (winter, summer, and the two transition seasons: autumn and spring).
• Location: Situated between two major bodies of water (the Mediterranean and the Atlantic) and two continents (Europe and Africa), this location acts as a crossroads, influencing air masses.
• Sea Influence: The influence of the sea is scarce in the peninsula compared to peripheral areas and archipelagos.
• Relief: Relief has a marked influence. The disposition of mountain systems acts as a barrier, limiting maritime influence only to the west, penetrating the Guadalquivir valley. Mountains also form air basins (north) and enclosed areas

Understanding Foundation Settlement

The primary cause of foundation settlement is the compressibility of the underlying, load-bearing soil layers.

Uniform vs. Unequal Settlement

It is crucial to distinguish between two types of settlement. Unequal settlement, also known as differential settlement, can be dangerous to a structure's integrity, whereas uniform settlement is generally less critical.

Factors Leading to Uniform Settlement

• Foundations resting on frost-free soils.
• Thorough ground investigation confirming consistent soil properties.
• Pressures from neighboring loads do not overlap.
• Uniform loads and a consistent soil profile.
• Consistent soil class and uniform foundation types across the structure.

Causes of Unequal (Differential) Settlement

• Heterogeneous