Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geology

Atmosphere: Layers and Properties

The atmosphere is a gaseous and tiered layer with vertical physical properties surrounding our planet. It extends super above 1000km.

Troposphere

The troposphere extends up to 13km and contains 75% of the total mass of the atmosphere. Most atmospheric phenomena occur here, with abundant vertical flows. The lower troposphere is followed by the tropopause, a transition layer where jet streams flow, influencing weather patterns. The location and intensity of these systems change with time and latitude.

Stratosphere

The stratosphere spans from 13 to 50km. In Caracas, the isotherm is practically at its lowest point, around -40°C. This layer contains ozone (O3), which absorbs UV radiation and heats the air.

Mesosphere

The... Continue reading "Atmospheric Layers: Properties, Pressure, and Weather Variables" »

Creationism vs. Evolution: Key Concepts

Creationism: A religious belief according to which the cosmos, universe, and all living beings were created by a divine creator. Creationism was widely accepted until the late 19th century and still has followers today.

Evolution: The theory that species constantly change, giving rise to new species. Current species are the result of the evolution of previous ones.

Key Principles of Evolution

• Variability of Species: Individuals within a species are not identical but show variations that are transmitted to their offspring.
• Natural Selection: As populations increase, resources become limited, leading to competition. Individuals better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce more successfully, while

Proc. Geologic: Transformation

Proc. Geologic: Transformation of objects, including solar and gravel differences.

Weathering: Rock Decomposition

Weathering: The decomposition of rocks and ores, such as granite gravel, due to factors like decompression.

Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical Weathering: Processes like decompression, geifracción (rock fracturing due to ice in Remera Mon Lacco), and temperature changes (dilation and contraction) and plant roots.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical Weathering: Includes hydrolysis, decarbonation, hydration, and oxidation.

Slope Phenomena

Slope Phenomena: Gravity's impact on materials along slopes, influenced by water as a lubricant.

• Falls: Detachment with partial displacement from the upper interface (cliff slopes and

Catalan Coastal Mountain Range

The Catalan Coastal Mountain Range extends from the Pyrenees to the Ebro Delta, in a northeast-southwest direction. The sector with siliceous material is formed by the rest of the Catalan-Balearic solid. The southern sector includes Montseny. The sector with calcareous materials includes the mountains of Montserrat and Montsant.

Ebro Depression

The Ebro Depression, with a northwest-southeast direction, originates in the Cantabrian Mountains. However, it mainly flows through the Pyrenees and the Iberian System, leading to the Catalan Coastal System in the northeast and forming the main delta of the peninsula. The relief of the depression is derived from eroded material from the surrounding mountains. In turn, erosion... Continue reading "Catalonia and Andalusia: Geography and Relief of Key Regions" »

Solar Radiation and Its Impact on Earth

The energy produced in the interior of the Sun is emitted in all directions into space. This is solar radiation. The closer a planet is to the Sun, the greater the quantity of energy it receives.

Earth's Atmospheric Layers

• Troposphere: The lowest layer. It contains most of the atmospheric gases. Clouds and all meteorological processes occur in this layer.
• Stratosphere: Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs ultraviolet rays.
• Ionosphere: A thin layer (up to 600km).
• Exosphere: Gradually transitions into outer space; there is no sudden change.

Albedo and Absorption

Albedo is the portion of solar energy that is immediately reflected back into space and does not heat the Earth's surface. Another part of the solar... Continue reading "Solar Radiation and Earth's Climate: Key Factors" »

Plants: An Introduction

Plants are living, autotrophic organisms, meaning they produce their own food. They are not fixed to the substrate and are capable of moving actively. The primary substance that allows plants to use solar energy is called chlorophyll. Plants incorporate water, carbon dioxide, and mineral salts, which serve to reproduce them. They transform inorganic substances into organic energy, and this process requires sunlight. This process is called photosynthesis.

Plant Organs

• Root: The part that anchors the plant into the soil and absorbs water and mineral salts.
• Stem: The aerial part of the plant where substances circulate from the root to the leaves.
• Leaves: Expansions that grow from the stem, where photosynthesis primarily occurs.

Plato's Life and Times (428-347 BC)

Plato was born and lived during a period of social and political upheaval, marked by wars between the peoples of Attica (Athens) and the Peloponnese (Sparta). This era witnessed political corruption, including the tyrannical period of the Thirty Tyrants, who staged a coup in 404 BC. Even during the democratic period, Plato harshly criticized the government, deeming it ignorant and driven by misguided opinions. He saw injustice in the oligarchic order and errors in democracy, leading him to seek a more rational and just system. He expressed these views in his *Letter VII*, a fundamental document for understanding the authenticity of his writings.

The Allegory of the Cave: A Critique of Society

Plato masterfully... Continue reading "Plato's Life, Philosophy, and the Academy: A Deep Dive" »

Agricultural Activity in the Pampas Region

The Farm Act enabled the expansion of agricultural development. Currently, agricultural production aims for self-sufficiency in the domestic food market and forms the basis of the main export complexes. The balance depends on balancing commercial products and cultivated area per year. Modernization in recent years has incorporated new technologies, varied seed varieties, and fertilizers, increasing productivity and improving competitiveness in exports. Organic products are expensive, targeting a market sector with high economic levels. Changes in land use, from agriculture to livestock farming, increase the cultivated area for livestock. This development is favored by:

• Flat terrain suitable for machinery.

1. Zonal Soils

Zonal soils are primarily influenced by climatic factors.

High Latitudes (Tundra)

Characterized by undeveloped, poor vegetation due to extreme climatic conditions. The ground is frozen (permafrost), with a thawed surface layer called mollisol.

Mid-Latitude Cold Climates

• Podzols (or Spodosols): Have well-differentiated A, B, and C horizons. They are acidic soils with organic matter from coniferous vegetation, which acidifies the soil.
• Brown Forest Soils: Exhibit differentiated A and C profiles, with a less defined B horizon. Rich in humus due to deciduous vegetation. High rainfall leads to leaching (lixiviation).
• Gray Soils (of Continental Climates): Contain a high amount of sand. They are intermediate soils between steppe and temperate