Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geology

Earth's Layers and Composition

Core

The Earth's core, a zone of higher density and temperature, occupies 17% of the Earth's volume. The inner core is denser than the outer core.

Mantle

The mantle, with a thickness of 2900 km, occupies 82% of the Earth's volume. It has a lower density than the core. Convection currents in the asthenosphere, a part of the upper mantle, drive the movement of tectonic plates in the lithosphere.

Lithosphere

The lithosphere, the outermost layer, is less dense and colder than the mantle. It forms the oceanic and continental crust. The main constituents of the crust are rocks, which are solid, natural aggregates of one or more minerals.

Tectonic Plate Movement and its Effects

Tectonic plates move at a very slow velocity. The... Continue reading "Earth's Structure and Dynamic Processes: A Comprehensive Overview" »

Fabrication Painting: Cleaning and Degreasing

The areas of the car body tend to accumulate fat and dust, which must be removed before painting to ensure the product's adherence to the wing area.

Phosphating

This is a surface treatment that converts the metal. The metal is treated with a layer of microcrystalline zinc phosphate. The bodywork is immersed in a bath of composite with phosphoric acid, zinc phosphate additives, and accelerators. This provides a more uniform coating and better penetration into the hollow parts than spraying.

Responsibilities

After the phosphating process, the surface is washed with a passivating aqueous solution, which improves grip and anticorrosion protection.

Drying

This is performed with hot air to harden the layers... Continue reading "Automotive Body Painting: Processes and Techniques" »

The Galaico-Leonese Massif

The northwest corner of the Meseta Central, the Galaico-Leonese Massif, fractured and rejuvenated during the Alpine orogeny. It consists of Paleozoic materials and features rounded, low-lying mountains cut by faults. Its most prominent mountains are Segundera, Cabrera, and Ancares.

The Cantabrian Mountains

The Cantabrian Mountains have two sectors:

• The Asturian Massif: Composed of Paleozoic materials that were part of the Meseta Central and rejuvenated in the Alpine orogeny. Its western end features varying hardness of materials (slates and quartzites), while its eastern end consists of limestone.
• The eastern Cantabrian Mountains: Composed of Mesozoic limestone materials deposited by the sea and folded during the Alpine

Water Contaminants

Water pollution can have natural or human origins. Contaminants can be physical (suspended solids), chemical (organic matter, nitrogen compounds, heavy metals), or biological (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, parasitic worms). Effects: Birds cannot fly due to oil ingress, fish stocks decrease, and coastal ecosystems are affected. Consequences:

• Eutrophication: Proliferation of photosynthetic organisms in water bodies.
• Water Temperature Increase: Hot water mixes with cold water and contaminates it.
• Salinization of Aquifers: Salty ocean water mixes with fresh groundwater.

Water Purification

Drinking water should be odorless, colorless, and tasteless, and it should contain no toxic substances. Water undergoes chemical processes to remove... Continue reading "Water Contamination, Purification, and Biodiversity Conservation" »

Metamorphism: Rock Transformations

Metamorphism refers to the set of transformations that a rock undergoes when subjected to pressure and temperature conditions different from those that prevailed during its genesis.

Factors Influencing Metamorphism

Changes in temperature, pressure, and fluid flow alter the stability of minerals.

• Temperature Increase: This can be due to the confinement of rocks within the Earth's crust and the movement of fault blocks, which release heat.
• Pressure Increase: Pressure increases can result from:
  • Confinement: The accumulation of sediments exerts a uniform pressure inside, known as lithostatic pressure (Pl).
  • Folding: This introduces a horizontal pressure component called tectonic pressure (Pt).
  • Presence of a Fluid Phase:

Analysis of Precipitation

Total Precipitation

• Very abundant: +1000 mm (mountain climate)
• Abundant: +800 mm (oceanic climate)
• Short: 800-300 mm (continentalized coastal Mediterranean climate)
• Very low: <300 mm (sub-desert steppe climate)
• Extremely low: <150 mm (desert climate)

Distribution of Rainfall

• Regular: No dry month with rainfall < 30 mm (oceanic climate)
• Fairly regular: Maximum of 2 dry months (oceanic climate transitioning towards continental Mediterranean)
• Irregular: More than 2 dry months (Mediterranean climate), +7 dry months (dry sub-desert or steppe Mediterranean climate)

Noteworthy points:

• Seasons with more abundant precipitation
• Months with less or no rainfall (dry months)

Analysis of Temperature

Average Annual Temperature and Thermal

Mesozoic Era (250-65 Ma)

No geological evolution. Towards the end of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, all continents of the Earth united to form Pangea. The distribution of land and sea undergoes major changes during this era, during which continents separate.

Life in the Mesozoic

In the Mesozoic, a major diversification of marine fauna, especially molluscs and echinoderms, occurred due to the fracturing of Pangea. Reptiles experienced significant diversification, colonizing air, aquatic, and terrestrial environments (dinosaurs).

Types of Dinosaurs:

• Teropods: Carnivorous with short front legs equipped with strong claws and enormous teeth.
• Sauropods: Large quadrupedal herbivores with very long necks and tails, and columnar legs.
• Ornithopods: Bipedal herbivores.

THE WATER OR RIVERS:

The route of the rivers is determined by the relief. The characteristic differentiated sides are the Atlantic side and Mediterranean.

Atlantic:

Here are the longest rivers. This vertiente pertenece the longest river and the mighty of the region Guadalquivur along with its main tributary, the Genil basin is regulated by Gualdalkibir numbers embalses. Other rivers of the red side are the Guadalete, Odiel, and Barbate.

Mediterranean:

Is composed of rivers that pour their waters into the Mediterranean Sea. These rivers are born on the mountain rivers Penibética neighborhoods so they are small and short with irregular flow. Some of these rivers remain dry most of the year. Among Andalusian Mediterranean rivers can stand the walking... Continue reading "Geography and Climate of Andalusia: Rivers, Climate Variations, and Environmental Issues" »

The First Nuclei of Resistance

United Astur-Leones

In 718, Don Pelayo was elected king. In 722, the victory of Covadonga was achieved.

United Pamplona

Around the 9th century, Sancho I strengthened the new kingdom, extending it southward. His dynasty established the County of Aragon in 970.

County of Aragon

In the central Pyrenees, the counties of Aragon, Ribagorza, and Sobrarbe were formed. From 970, it was linked to Pamplona.

Catalan Counties

Located in the eastern Pyrenees, these counties were related to the Carolingian monarchy in the 8th and 9th centuries.

Main Stages of the Reconquest

8th-10th Centuries

Christian advances were limited to occupying nearly empty territories, such as the Duero basin and the northern Ebro.

11th and First Half of the 12th

Understanding the Biosphere

The set of all living beings that inhabit the Earth is known as the biosphere. Currently, there are approximately 2 million species. An ecosystem is defined as all living beings that inhabit a specific place, where relationships are established between them and the physical environment they live in, along with the site characteristics and relationships between the environment and organisms.

Types of Ecosystems

There are several types of ecosystems:

• Aquatic Ecosystems: Rivers, ponds
• Terrestrial Ecosystems: Deserts, forests

The Ecosphere

The ecosphere is the set of all the ecosystems of our planet. The biosphere is the living part of the food ecosystem, where living beings perform vital functions. All living things need energy,... Continue reading "Understanding the Biosphere and Ecosystems on Earth" »