Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Elements of Weather

Heat Stroke

Heat stroke is the amount of solar radiation received by the Earth's surface. In Spain, it exceeds 2000 hours of sunshine per year.

Cloudiness

Cloudiness is the state of the atmosphere where the sky is covered by clouds. The area with the most cloudiness is the Cantabrian coast, and the area with the least is the Guadalquivir valley.

Air Temperature

Temperature is the degree of heat in the air. On maps, it is represented by isotherms. The mildest temperatures are near the sea and decrease inland.

Annual Temperature Range

The annual temperature range is the difference between the average temperature of the warmest month and the coldest month.

Frosts

Frosts occur when the air temperature is below 0°C.

Irradiation

Irradiation... Continue reading "Understanding Weather Elements: A Comprehensive Look" »

Wastewater Treatment

Wastewater treatment is a widely used plant purification method. Separating gray water from black water (sewage) can reduce costs, as can removing detergents and oils. Purifying water involves a series of physical and chemical processes, which vary depending on the order in which they are applied.

Wastewater Treatment Plant Classification

• Primary Treatment: Primarily removes inorganic solids, often with the aid of adjuvants.
• Secondary Treatment: Removes organic matter using microorganisms.
• Tertiary Treatment: Eliminates specific components or purifies microorganisms.

Primary Treatment Processes

Sand Chamber

Mineral residue is removed.

Sedimentation

After removing mineral waste, water passes through a sedimentation tank where organic... Continue reading "Wastewater Purification Methods" »

Dehesa and Trees

The grove is essential in the pasture. In addition to the so-called "tree effect", which changes the microclimate, the influence on vegetation makes it early and late.

This appears to be due to the possibility of extraction of nutrients from deep horizons, and thermal differences of the crown and roots.

According to Law 7/2010, of July 14, regarding the Dehesa:

a) Formation of open stands:

A forest area occupied by a layer of trees with a canopy cover between 5% and 75%, composed mainly of oaks, cork oaks, and olive trees, and occasionally other trees, allowing the development of an essentially herbaceous layer (grass) to be used for livestock or game species.

b) Pasture: A farm constituted mostly by the formation of open stands,... Continue reading "Dehesa Ecosystem: Trees, Pastures, and Sustainability" »

Relief: Earth's Surface and Water Movement

Relief refers to the Earth's surface, which influences the movement of water.

Time: Soil Formation and Evolution

Time influences the formation, development, and evolution of soil.

Soil Profile: Layers with Distinct Characteristics

A soil profile is a set of horizons, which are layers with different characteristics.

Horizon A: Surface Layer and Eluviation

Horizon A is always on the surface and has the highest biological activity. Clay loss occurs in this layer, making it an eluvial horizon (meaning it has lost particles).

Horizon B: Clay Accumulation and Illuviation

Horizon B has a large clay content. It is an illuvial horizon (meaning it gains particles).

Horizon C: Parent Material Layer

Horizon C is similar... Continue reading "Soil Fundamentals: Composition, Agriculture, and Organic Matter" »

Earth's Interior: Composition and Structure

Sudden and Gradual Changes in Earth's Layers

There are both sudden and gradual changes within Earth's interior. These variations occur because materials differ in their composition and/or hardness. Since S waves propagate through solids but not fluids, we can conclude that at approximately 2900km depth, there is a transition to a continuous layer of molten material.

Ocean Floor and Magnetic Stripes

It was discovered that the oceanic crust, specifically basalts, and the associated bands had a magnetization parallel to the axis of the ridge. To explain these magnetic stripes, F. Vine and D.H. Matthews developed the theory of seafloor spreading. This theory posits that ridges are places where new oceanic... Continue reading "Earth's Interior: Composition, Structure, and Plate Tectonics" »

Atmospheric Dynamics: Vertical Movements and Stability

Convection

Vertical movements occurring in the troposphere, called convection, are caused by variations in temperature, humidity, or atmospheric pressure.

• Thermal Convection: These movements are caused by the contrast in air temperature. Air near the surface tends to rise, forming thermals of rising air, while higher up, the air tends to cool and descend.
• Moisture Convection: These are caused by the presence of water vapor in the air. Water vapor can be measured in two ways:

1. Absolute Humidity: The amount of water vapor in a determined volume of air, expressed in g/m³.
2. Relative Humidity: The amount of water vapor in 1m³ of air, expressed as a percentage, in relation to the maximum amount it can

What Are Fossils?

Places with rocks containing marine animal fossils were once under the sea. These organisms lived in the sea; upon dying, their bodies were deposited on the seabed and subsequently buried by sediments. Mountains are not as old as the Earth itself. When the organisms that became these fossils were alive, the rocks that now contain them (and form the mountains) might not have existed as mountains yet.

Explaining Marine Fossil Presence in Mountains

The presence of marine fossils in mountains can be explained by two main processes, both of which have occurred throughout Earth's history:

Changes in Sea Level

• Variation in the volume of water in the oceans: Climate has changed many times throughout Earth's history, affecting global sea

Water Diversity: Elements of the River System

Water is an essential element for life, but only 3% is freshwater, with the rest being saline.

The Rivers

Rivers are continuous streams whose flow empties into lakes, other rivers, or seas.

Droughts and Floods

• Droughts: Periods of low flow.
• Floods: Periods of high flow.

Flow Rate

The volume of water in a river is measured in cubic meters per second.

The River Regime

The river regime expresses flow rate. Climate variations and the relief condition the rivers, also influenced by lithology, vegetation density, and human action.

Key Elements Affecting River Systems

1) Flow Rate

Flow is greater at the mouth of the river, where there is little evaporation.

2) Irregularity

This refers to the varying amount of water present... Continue reading "Understanding River Systems: Characteristics and Elements" »

Global Effects

The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is the retention in the atmosphere of a portion of the heat emitted by the Earth's surface after it has warmed due to solar radiation. This process delays the release of thermal energy into outer space.

The concentration of gases in the atmosphere causes average temperatures on our planet to be around 15°C. Without these gases, it would be much colder. The main gas that absorbs terrestrial radiation is CO2, but water vapor also plays an important role.

Computer simulations predict significant changes by the end of the twenty-first century:

• An increase of between 1.5 and 6.5 ºC in average temperature.
• Changes in global rainfall patterns, with a tendency towards drought in some areas and

Key Factors Influencing the Climate of the Iberian Peninsula

Latitude: Situated between 35º and 43º North, the Iberian Peninsula lies within the temperate zone, experiencing four distinct seasons. Location: Nestled between the Atlantic Ocean (more open and cooler) and the Mediterranean Sea (smaller, enclosed, and warmer). Water bodies cool and heat more slowly than continents, so the coasts are affected by the sea's thermoregulatory effect, preventing excessively high temperatures. Influence of the Sea: Relatively low, with continental influence being more significant. The Peninsula behaves climatically like a small continent; the land cools and heats rapidly, leading to significant temperature variations both daily and annually. In winter,... Continue reading "Climate Factors and Atmospheric Dynamics in the Iberian Peninsula" »